Buddha And the Gospel of Buddhism Buddha Sakyamuni and Buddha Prabhutaratna (Wei Tartar Dynasty, dated 518 A.D. Bronze. 26 cm. high. Muse'e Guimet, Paris). Buddha Prabhutaratna, the Tathagata of a former aeon, appears in order to rejoice at the exposition of the Dharmaparyaya (Lotus of the True Law) as it it expounded by Sakyamuni Buddha. Prabhutaratna is so pleased that he cedes half of his throne to the Tathagata of our age, who accepts: "so that both TathSgatas were seen as meteors in the sky, sitting on the throne in the middle of the great stupa of jewels." (Saddharma Pundarika or the Lotus of the True Law, tr. H. Kern, Oxford, 1909, S.B.E., XXI, p. 237)- Ananda K. Coomaraswamy Buddha and the Gospel of Buddhism Revised by DOfiA LUISA COOMARASWAMY HARPER TORCHBOOKS THE CLOISTER LIBRARY Harper & Row, Publishers New York. Evanston, and London ILLUSTRATION ON TITLE PAGE Rimbo (Dharmacakra) supported by the lotus. (After (5mura Seigai, Sanbon Ryobu Mandara.) The Dharmacakra as Buddha is the symbol implying the conception of Dharmakaya, "Embodiment of the Word" ; he is both the Sover- eign Mover of the Wheel, and the Wheel, the Word set in motion . . . that men may find their Way. Cf. "I am the Way, the Truth, and the Life" (John 14:6). "Who sees the Dhamma sees Me, who sees Me sees the Dhamma" Samyutta Nikfiya, III, 120. The Dhamma is synonymous with Lex Aeterna. BUDDHA AND THE GOSPEL OF BUDDHISM Printed in the United States of America. This book was originally published in 1916 by George G. Harrap & Company, London, and is here reprinted by arrange- ment with Mrs. A. K. Coomaraswamy, who has revised the text for the Torchbook edition. First HARPER TORCHBOOK edition published 1964 by Harper & Row, Publishers, Incorporated 49 East 33rd Street Hew? Yorjc, N.Y. 10016 PREFACE THE aim of this book is to set forth as simply as possible the Gospel of Buddhism according to the Buddhist scriptures, and to consider the Buddhist systems in relation, on the one hand, to the Brahmanical systems in which they originate, and, on the other hand, to those systems of Christian mysticism which afford the nearest analogies. At the same time the endeavour has been made to illustrate the part which Buddhist thought has played in the whole development of Asiatic culture, and to suggest a part of the significance it may still possess for modern thinkers. The way of the Buddha is not, indeed, concerned directly with the order of the world, for it calls on higher men to leave the market-place. But the order of the world can only be established on a foundation of knowledge : every evil is ultimately traceable to ignorance. It is necessary, then, to recognize the world for what it truly is. Gautama teaches us that the marks of this life are imperfection, transience, and the absence of any changeless individu- ality. He sets before us a summum bonum closely akin to the Christian mystic conception of *self-naughting. J Here are definite statements which must be either true or false, and a clearly defined goal which we must either accept or refuse. If the statements be false, and if the goal be worthless, it is of the highest importance that the former should be refuted and the latter discredited. But if the diagnosis be correct and the aim worthy, it is at least of equal importance that this should be generally recognized : for we cannot wish to perpetuate as the basis of our sociology a view of life that is demonstrably false or a purpose demonstrably contrary to our conception of the good. Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism This book is designed, therefore, not as an addition to our already over burdened libraries of information, but as a definite contribution to the philosophy of life. Our study of alien modes of thought and feeling, if it is to be of any real use to us, must be inspired by other than curious motives or a desire to justify our own system. For the common civilization of the world we need a common will, a recognition of common problems, and to co-operate in their solution. At this moment, when the Western world is beginning to realize that it has failed to attain the fruit of life in a society based on competition and self-assertion, there lies a profound significance in the discovery of Asiatic thought, where it is affirmed with no uncertain voice that the fruit of life can only be attained in a society based on the con- ception of moral order and mutual responsibility. Let me illustrate by a single quotation the marvellous direct- ness and sincerity of the social ethic to which the psychology of Buddhism affords its sanction : Victory breeds hatred, for the conquered is unhappy. Stories are told of Asiatic rulers paying the price of kingdoms for a single word of profitable counsel. One may well inquire whether any conceivable price could have been too high for Europe to have paid for a general recogni- tion of this truth, before now. There is, again, a passage of the Ruru-deer Jataka which is perhaps unique in all literature in its supreme tenderness and courtesy: For who the Bodhisattva asks would willingly use harsh speech to those who have done a sinful deed, strewing salt, as it were, upon the wound of their fault? It is with gifts such as this that Buddhism, and the Hinduism from which it issues and into which it has VI Preiace again merged, stand over against the world of laissez faire* demanding of their followers only the abandon- ment of all resentment, coveting, and dulness, and offering in return a happiness and peace beyond our reasonable understanding. Can we deny that modes of thought which find expression thus must for ever command our deepest sympathy and most profound consideration ? It is not possible that liberation from resentment, coveting, and dulness, should ever be ill-timed : and it is just this liberation which constitutes the ethical factor in Nibbana, where the psychological part is self- forgetfulness. It will be plainly seen to what extent I am indebted to the work of other scholars and students, and I wish to make a frank and grateful acknowledgment to all those from whose work I have freely quoted, particularly Professor and Mrs Rhys Davids and Professor Oldenberg, as well as to others to whom I am indebted for the use of photo- graphs. A few suggestions may be useful as a guide to pro- nunciation. Vowels generally are pronounced as in Italian: a as in America* a as in father* e as a in nave* i as in it* I as ee in greet* o as in note* u as oo in room* u as oo in boot : ai has the sound of i in bite* au the sound of ow in cow. Every consonant is distinctly pronounced, and aspirates are distinctly heard. C has the sound of ch in church* while s in some cases has the sound of sh* e.g. in Siva* Isvara* Sankara* etc. The accent falls on the first syllable or the third, rarely or never on the second. Certain words, such as kamma* Nibbana* Bodhisatta* etc., are quoted in these Pali forms where Hinayana Buddhism vii Buddha ftf the Gospel of Buddhism is in question, and in the more familiar Sanskrit forms karma, Nirvana, Bodkisattva, where the reference is to Mahayana. ANANDA COOMARASWAMY LONDON, February 8, 1916 I am especially grateful to Miss I. B. Horner (Hon. Secretary of the Pali Text Society, London) for re-reading the earlier editions, for many corrections of misprints and suggestions used throughout this publica- tion. D.L.C., 1964 CONTENTS PAGE PART I : THE LIFE OF THE BUDDHA 9 PART II : THE GOSPEL OF EARLY BUDDHISM I DHAMMA 90 II SAMSARA AND KAMMA (KARMA) 104 III BUDDHIST HEAVENS AND HOW TO REACH THEM no IV NIBBANA 115 V ETHICS 126 VI CONSCIENCE 137 VII SPIRITUAL EXERCISES 141 VIII CONSOLATION 148 IX THE ORDER 151 X TOLERANCE 155 XI WOMEN 159 XII EARLY BUDDHISM AND NATURE 166 XIII BUDDHIST PESSIMISM 176 XIV A BUDDHIST EMPEROR 180 PART III : CONTEMPORARY SYSTEMS I VEDANTA 187 II SAMKHYA 194 III YOGA I9 6 IV BUDDHISM AND BRAHMANISM 198 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism PART IV : THE MAHAYANA PAGE I BEGINNINGS OF THE MAHAYANA 222 II SYSTEM OF THE MAHAYANA 226 III CH'AN, OR ZEN BUDDHISM 252 PART V : BUDDHIST ART I LITERATURE 259 II SCULPTURE AND PAINTING 3*3 BIBLIOGRAPHY 347 GLOSSARY 3Si INDEX 359 LIST OF PLATES BUDDHA SAKYAMUNI AND BUDDHA PRABHUTARATNA frontispiece RIMBO (Dharmacakra) SUPPORTED BY THE LOTUS title page Facing PLATE A FOUR SCENES FROM THE NATIVITY 12 B THE Abhiniskraman, GOING FORTH OF THE BODHISATTVA 24 C Mara Darshana: TEMPTATION OF THE BUDDHA 25 D THE FORTY-NINE DAYS (CEYLON) 36 E THE FIRST SERMON (SARNATH) 37 F THE FIRST SERMON (NEPAL) 40 G THE BUDDHA TEACHING (JAPAN) 41 H COLOSSAL STANDING IMAGE OF A MONASTIC BUDDHA (MATHURA) 46 I YASHODHARA AND RAHULA (AJANTA) 50 J ROCK-CUT IMAGE OF THE BUDDHA (LONG-MEN, CHINA) 51 K STANDING IMAGE OF THE BUDDHA WITH ATTENDANTS (CHINESE) 66-67 L THE QUELLING OF NALAGIRI (AMARAVATI) 68 M THE FINAL RELEASE OF THE BUDDHA (GANDHARA) 80 N THE BUDDHA IN SAMADHI (ANURADHAPURA) 146-14? O BUDDHIST MONK (CHINESE) 152 P MONASTERY AND COURTYARD (CHINESE) 154-155 Q BUDDHIST TEMPLES 'IN CEYLON 156-157 Buddha ftp the Gospel of Buddhism Facing PLATE page R SANCHI STUPA AND GATEWAY 184-185 S THE GREAT STUPA AT SANCHI 186 T LION CAPITAL FROM AN ASOKA COLUMN (SARNATH) 187 U LAY- WORSHIPPERS OF THE BUDDHA-PADUKA (AMARAVATI) 224 V AVALOKITESVARA (NEPAL) 230 W MAITREYA BODHISATTVA (CEYLON) 236 X MARA'S BATTLE AND A BUDDHIST LIBRARY (CEYLON) 262-263 Y HEAD OF A BUDDHA (THAILAND) 274 Z YAKKHI AND NAGARAJA (BHARHUT) 322-323 AA YAKKHI (SANCHI) 324 BB STANDING IMAGE OF THE BUDDHA (ANURADHAPURA) 325 CC IMAGES OF THE BUDDHA AND BODHISATTVAS (CEYLON AND CHINA) 328-329 DD THE FIRST SERMON (GANDHARA) 330 EE THE BUDDHA (CAMBODIA) 331 FF BODHISATTVA, PERHAPS AVALOKITESVARA (AJANTA) 334 GG MANJUSRI BODHISATTVA (JAVA) 335 HH BODHISATTVA (CHINA) 338 JJ THE BUDDHA (CHINA) 339 KK KVVANNON (JAPAN) 342 LL KWANYIN (CHINA) 343 QUOTATIONS 2 will go down to self-annihilation and Eternal Death, Lest the Last Judgment come and find me unannihilate, And I be seitfd andgitfn into the hands of my own Selfhood. Blake, "Milton? But, alas, how hard it is for the Will to sink into nothing, to attract nothing, to imagine nothing, Let it be granted that it is so. Is it not surely worth thy while, and all that thou canst ever do 1 Behmen, "Dialogues? Not I, not any one else can travel that road for you. You must travel it foryourself. Walt Whitman. You cannot step twice into the same waters^ for fresh waters are ever flowing in upon you. Herakleitus. Vraiement comencent amours en ioye etfynissent en dolours, Merlin. By a man without passions I mean one who does not permit good and evil to disturb his internal economy, but rather falls in with whatever happens, as a matter of course, and does not add to the sum of his mortality. Chuang Tsu. Profound, Vaccha, is this doctrine, recondite, and difficult of compre- hension, good, excellent, and not to be reached by mere reasoning, subtile, and intelligible only to the wise ; and it is a hard doctrine for you to learn, who belong to another sect, to another faith, to another persuasion, to another discipline, and sit at the feet of another teacher. Mijjhima Nikaya, Sutta 72. "The Buddhas who have been, are, and will be, are more numerous than the grains of sand on the banks of the Ganges." Aparimita-Dkaram. PART I : THE LIFE OF THE BUDDHA His Birth THE name Buddha, < the Knower, 5 ' the Enlightened/ 'the Wake, 5 is the appellation by which the wandering preaching friar Gautama became best known to his disciples- Of this man we are able to say with some certainty that he was born in the year 563 B.C. and died in 483 B.C. He was the heir of a ruling house of the Sakyas, whose little kingdom, a rich irrigated plain between the Nepalese foot-hills and the river Rapti, lay to the north-east of the present province of Oudh. To the south-west lay the larger and more powerful kingdom of the Kosalas, to whom the Sakyas owed a nominal allegiance. The Buddha's personal name was Siddhattha, his family name Gautama, his father's name Suddhodana, his mother's Maya. It is only in later legend that Suddhodana is represented as a great king; most likely he was in fact a wealthy knight and land- owner. Siddhattha' s mother died seven days after his birth, and her sister MahapajapatI, another wife of Suddhodana, filled the place of mother to the young prince. He was brought up in Kapilavatthu, a busy provincial capital ; he was trained in martial exercises, riding, and outdoor life generally, and in all knightly accomplishments, but it is not indicated in the early books that he was accomplished in Brahmanical lore. In accordance with the custom of well- to-do youths, he occupied three different houses in winter, summer, and the rainy season, these houses being provided with beautiful pleasure gardens and a good deal of simple luxury. It is recorded that he was married, and had a son, by name Rahula, who afterwards became his disciple. Siddhattha experienced the intellectual and spiritual 9 Buddha ^f the Gospel of Buddhism unrest of his age, and felt a growing dissatisfaction with the world of pleasure in which he moved, a dissatisfaction rooted in the fact of its transience and uncertainty, and of man's subjection to all the ills of mortality. Suddhodana feared that these thoughts would lead to the loss of his son, who would become a hermit, as was the tendency of the thinkers of the time; and these fears were well founded, for in spite of every pleasure and luxury that could be devised to withhold him, Siddhattha ultimately left his home to adopt the * homeless life 5 of the * Wanderer, 5 a seeker after truth that should avail to liberate all men from the bondage of mortality. Such enlightenment he found after years of search. Thereafter, during a long ministry as a wandering preacher, he taught the Four Anyan Truths and the EightfoldJ^atk-; attract- ing many disciples, he founded a monastic order as a refuge for higher men, the seekers for everlasting freedom and unshakable peace. He died at the age of eighty. After his death his disciples gathered together the "Words of the Enlightened One," and from this nucleus there grew up in the course of a few centuries the whole body of the Pali canon, and ultimately, under slightly different interpretation, Ihe whole mass of the Mahayana Sutras^ That so much of the story represents literal fact is not only very possible, but extremely probable; for there is nothing here which is not in perfect accordance with the life of that age and the natural development of Indian thought. We know, for example, that many groups of wandering ascetics were engaged in the same quest, and that they were largely recruited from an intel- lectual and social aristocracy to whom the pretensions of Brahmanical priestcraft were no longer acceptable, and who were no less out of sympathy with the multitudinous cults 10 The Legendary Buddha of popular animism. We know the name of at least one other princely ascetic, Vardhamana, a contemporary of the Buddha, and the founder of the monastic system of the Jainas. The Legendary Buddha But while it is easy to extract from the Buddhist books such a nucleus of fact as is outlined above, the materials for a more circumstantial biography of the Buddha, extensive as they are, cannot be regarded as historical in the scientific usage of the word. What is, however, far more important than the record of fact, is the expression of all that the facts, as understood, implied to those to whom they were a living inspiration; and it is just this expression of what the life of Buddha meant to Buddhists, or Bauddhas, as the followers of Gautama are more properly called, that we find in the. legendary lives, such as the Lalitavistara* which is familiar to Western readers in Sir Edwin Arnold's Light of Asia. Here, then, we shall relate the life of Buddha in some detail, from the various sources indicated, 1 regardless of the fact that these presuppose a doctrinal development which can only have taken place after the Buddha's death; for the miraculous and mythological elements are always very transparent and artistic. The history of the Buddha begins with the resolve of the individual Brahman Sumedha, long ago, to become a Buddha in some future birth, that he might spread abroad saving truth for the help of suffering humanity. Countless ages ago this same Sumedha, retiring one day to the upper chamber of his house, seated himself and fell into thought: "Behold, I am subject to birth, to 1 Chiefly the Nidandkatha (introduction to the Pali Jatakas), the Maha Parinibbana Sutta, and the Lalitamstara. II Buddha ftP the Gospel of Buddhism decay, to disease, and to death ; it is right, then, that I should strive to win the great deathless Nibbana, which is tranquil, and free from birth and decay, sickness, and woe and weal. Surely there must be a road that leads to Ntitbana and releases man from existence." Accordingly, he gave away all his wealth and adopted the life of a hermit in the forest. At that time Dipankara Buddha appeared in the world, and attained enlightenment. It happened one day that Dipankara Buddha was to pass that way, and men were preparing the road for him. Sumedha asked and received permission to join in the work, and not only did he do so, but when Dipankara came Sumedha laid himself down in the mud, so that the Buddha might walk upon his body without soiling his feet. Then Dipankara's attention was aroused and he became aware of Sumedha's intention to become a Buddha, and, looking countless ages into the future, he saw that he would become a Buddha of the name of Gautama, and he prophesied accordingly. Thereupon Sumedha rejoiced, and, rejecting the immediate prospect of becoming an Arahat, as the disciple of Dipankara, " Let me rather," he said, "like Dipankara, having risen to the supreme knowledge of the truth, enable all men to enter the ship of truth, and thus I may bear them over the Sea of Existence, and then only let me realize Nibbana myself." Incarnation of the Buddha When Dipankara with all his followers had passed by Sumedha examined the Te Perfections indispensable to Buddahood, and determined to practise them in his future births. So it came to pass, until in the last of these births the Bodhisatta was reborn as Prince Vessantara, who exhibited the Perfection of Supernatural Generosity, and 12 Four Scenes from the Nativity. (Casing slab, Amar2vatr, third century A.D., British Museum.) On the upper right is the conception : Maya DevT is sleeping on a couch, her maid is leaning over a pitha (a seat) sleeping, while the four Regents of the Quarters are keeping watch. On the upper left the dream is interpreted: Suddhodana sits on his throne, Maya Devi, seated below to the right ; above them are attendants with cauris (fly-whisks), and the minister and Yuvaraja (eldest prince) on the left ; below are two Brahman soothsayers. On the lower right is the actual "nativity" ; Maya Devi in the Lumbim garden supports herself by a sal tree ; to her right stands a female attendant. To the left stand the four Regents, holding a cloth in which to receive the child, whose presence is indicated by two small foot-prints seen on the cloth held by the first Regent. The fntha below is the symbol of the first bath given the Bodhisattva. On the left the infant is presented to the Yaka ^akyavardhana, who with folded hands emerging from the altar at the foot of the tree, bows to the foot-prints of the child, causing all to exclaim, "He is the God of Gods," Devatideva. The Incarnation of the Buddha in due time passed away and dwelt in the Heaven of Delight. When the time had come for the Bodhisatta to return to earth for the last time, the deities of the ten thousand world-systems assembled together, and, approach- ing the Bodhisatta in the Heaven of Delight, said: " Now has the moment come, O Blessed One, for thy Buddhahood ; now has the time, O Blessed One, arrived I " Then the Bodhisatta considered the time, the continent, the district, the tribe, and the mother, and, having deter- mined these, he assented, saying : " The time has come, O Blessed Ones, for me to become a Buddha." And even as he was walking there in the Grove of Gladness he departed thence and was conceived in the womb of the lady Maha Maya. The manner of the conception is ex- plained as follows. At the time of the midsummer festival in Kapilavatthu, Maha Maya, the lady of Suddhodana, lay on her couch and dreamed a dream. She dreamt that the Four Guardians of the Quarters lifted her up and bore her away to the Himalayas, and there she was bathed in the Anotatta lake and lay down to rest on a heavenly couch within a golden mansion on Silver Hill. Then the Bodhisatta, who had become a beautiful white elephant, bearing in his trunk a white lotus flower, approached from the North, and seemed to touch her right side and to enter her womb. The next day when she awoke she related the dream to her lord, and it was interpreted by the Brahmans as follows : that the lady had conceived a man- child who, should he adopt the life of a householder, would become a Universal Monarch ; but if he adopted the religious life he would become a Buddha, removing from the world the veils of ignorance and sin. It should be told also that at the moment of the incarnation the heavens and the earth showed signs, the 13 Buddha ^f the Gospel of Buddhism dumb spoke, the lame walked, all men began to speak kindly, musical instruments played of themselves, the earth was covered with lotus flowers, and lotuses descended from the sky, and every tree put forth its flowers. From the moment of the incarnation, moreover, four devas guarded the Bodhisatta and his mother, to shield them from all harm. The mother was not weary, and she could perceive the child in her womb as plainly as one may see the thread in a transparent gem. The Lady Maha Maya carried the Bodhisatta thus for ten lunar months; at the end of that time she expressed a wish to visit her family in Devadaha ; and she set out on the journey. On the way from Kapilavatthu to Devadaha there is a pleasure-grove of Sal-trees belonging to the people of both cities, and at the time of the queen's journey it was filled with fruits and flowers. Here the queen desired to rest, and she was carried to the greatest of the Sal-trees and stood beneath it. As she raised her hand to take hold of one of its branches she knew her time had come, and so^standing and holding the branch of the Sal-tree she was delivered. Four Brahma devas received the child in a golden net, and showed it to the mother, saying: "Rejoice, O Lady! a great son is born to thee." The child stood upright, and took seven strides and cried: "I am supreme in the world. This is my last birth: henceforth there shall be no more birth for me I" At one and the same time there came into being the Seven Connatal Ones, viz., the mother of Rahula, Ananda the favourite disciple, Channa, the attendant, Kanthaka, the horse, Kaludayi, the minister, the great Bodhi tree, and the vases of Treasure. Kak Devala Kala Devala When the Bodhisatta was born there was great rejoicing in the heaven of the Thirty-three Gods. At that time also a certain hermit by name Kala Devala, an adept, sat in samSdhi, visiting the heaven of the Thirty-three, and seeing the rejoicing he learnt its cause. Immediately he returned to earth, and repaired to the palace, asking to see the new-born child. The prince was brought in to salute the great adept, but he rose from his seat and bowed to the child, saying: "I may not work my own destruction"* for assuredly if the child had been made to bow to his feet, the hermit's head would have split atwain, so much had it been against the order of nature. Now the adept cast backward and forward his vision over forty aeons, and perceived that the child would become a Buddha in his present birth : but he saw that he himself would die before the Great Enlightenment came to pass, and being reborn in the heaven of No-form, a hundred or even a thousand Buddhas might appear before he found the opportunity to become the disciple of any; and seeing this, he wept. He sent, however, for his nephew, then a householder, and advised him to become a hermit, for at the end of thirty-five years he would receive the teach- ing of the Buddha; and that same nephew, by name Nalaka, afterwards entered the order and became an Arahat. On the fifth day the name ceremonies were performed, and the child was called Siddhattha (Siddhartha). On this occasion eight soothsayers were present amongst the Brahmans, and of these seven foresaw that the child would become either a Universal Monarch or a Buddha, but the eighth, by name Kondafina, predicted that he would of a surety become a Buddha. This same 15 Buddha ^f the Gospel of Buddhism Kondanna afterwards belonged to the five who became the Buddha's first disciples. Then the prince's father inquired: "What will my son see, that will be the occasion of his forsaking the house- hold life ?" "The Four Signs," was the answer, "a man worn out by age, a sick man, a dead body, and a hermit." Then the king resolved that no such sights should ever be seen by his son, for he did not wish him to become a Buddha, but desired that he should rule the whole world ; and he appointed an innumerable and magnificent guard and retinue to protect his son from any such illumi- nating omens, and to occupy his mind with worldly pleasures. Seven days after the child's birth the Lady Maha Maya died, and was reborn in the heaven of the Thirty-three Gods, and Siddhattha was placed in the charge of his aunt and stepmother the Matron Gautaml. And now came to pass another miracle, on the occasion of the Ploughing Festival. For while the king was inaugurating the ploughing with his own hands, and the nurses were preparing food, the Bodhisatta took his seat beneath a Jambu-tree, and, crossing his legs like a yogi, he exercised the first degree of contemplation ; and though time passed, the shadow of the tree did not move. When the king beheld that miracle he bowed to the child, and cried: "This, dear one, is the second homage paid tothee!" As the Bodhisatta grew up his father built for him three palaces, respectively of nine, five, and seven stories, and- here he dwelt according to the seasons. Here the Bodhi- satta was surrounded by every luxury, and thousands of dancing-girls were appointed for his service and enter- tainment. Taken to the teachers of writing and the other 16 The Prince Marries arts, he soon surpassed them all, and he excelled in al martial exercises. The Prince Marries At the age of sixteen, the king sought for a wife fot his son; for by domestic ties he hoped to attach him still more to the worldly life. The prince had already experienced the desire to become a hermit. But in order, as the books say, to conform with the custom of former Bodhisattas, he consented to marry, if it were possible to find a girl of perfect manners, wholly truthful, modest, congenial to his temperament, and of pure and honour- able birth, young and fair, but not proud of her beauty, charitable, contented in self-denial, tender as a sister or a mother, not desiring music, scents, festivities or wine, pure in thought and word and deed, the last to sleep and the first to rise in the house where she should dwell. Brahmans were sent far and wide to seek for such a maiden amongst the Sakya families. At last the choice fell upon Siddhattha's cousin Yasodhara, the daughter of Suprabuddha of Kapilavatthu. And the king devised a plan to engage the young man's heart. He made ready a display of beautiful jewels which Siddhattha was to distribute amongst the Sakya maidens. So it came to pass : but when all the jewels had been bestowed, Yasodhara came late, and there was nothing left for her. Thinking that she was despised, she asked if there was no gift meant for her. Siddhattha said there was no such thought in his mind, and he sent for other rings and bracelets and gave them to her. She said: "Is it becoming for me to receive such gifts?" and he answered: "They are mine to give." And so she went her way. Then Suddhodana's spies reported that 17 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism Siddhattha had cast his eyes only upon Yasodhara, and had entered into conversation with her. A message was sent to Suprabuddha asking for his daughter. The answer came that daughters of the family were only given to those who excelled in the various arts and martial exercises, and "could this be the case with one whose whole life had been spent in the luxury of a palace P " Suddhodana was grieved because his son was considered to be indolent and weak. The Bodhisatta perceived his mood, and asked its cause, and being informed, he reassured his father, and advised that a contest in martial exercises should be proclaimed, and all the Sakya youths invited. So it was done. Then the Bodhisatta proved himself the superior of all, first in the arts of literature and numbers, then in wrestling and archery, and each and all of the sixty-four arts and sciences. When Siddhattha had thus shown his prowess, Suprabuddha brought his daughter to be affianced to the prince, and the marriage was celebrated with all magnificence. Amongst the defeated Sakyas were two cousins of the Buddha, the one Ananda, who afterwards became the favourite disciple, the other Devadatta, whose growing envy and jealousy made him the life-long enemy of the victor. The Four Signs The Bodhisatta is never entirely forgetful of his high calling. Yet it is needful that he should be reminded of the approaching hour ; and to this end the cosmic Buddhas made audible to Siddhattha, even as he sat and listened to the singing of the dancing-girls, the message " Recollect thy vow, to save all living things : the time is at hand : this alone is the purpose of thy birth." And thus as the 18 The Four Signs Bodhisatta sat in his beautiful palaces day after day surrounded by all the physical and intellectual pleasures that could be devised by love or art, he felt an ever more insistent call to the fulfilment of his spiritual destiny. And now were to be revealed to him the Four Signs which were to be the immediate cause of the Great Renunciation. The Bodhisatta desired one day to visit the royal pleasure- gardens. His father appointed a day, and gave command that the city should be swept and garnished, and that every inauspicious sight should be removed, and none allowed to appear save those who were young and fair. The day came, and the prince drove forth with the charioteer Channa. But the Devas * are not to be diverted from their ends : and a certain one assumed the form of an old and decrepit man, and stood in the midst of the street, "What kind of a man is this?" said the Prince, and Channa replied, " Sire, it is an aged man, bowed down by years.** "Are all men then," said the prince, "or this man only, subject to age?" The charioteer could but answer that youth must yield to age in every living being. "Shame, then, on life I " said the prince, " since the decay of every living thing is notorious I " and he turned to his palace in sadness. When all that had taken place was reported to the king, he exclaimed; "This is my ruin!" and he devised more and more amusements, music and plays calculated to divert Siddhattha's mind from the thought of leaving the world. Again the prince drove out to visit the pleasure-gardens of Kapilavatthu : and on the way they met a sick man, thin and weak and scorched by fever. When the meaning of this spectacle was made clear by the charioteer, the 1 Devas, the Olympian deities, headed by Sakka, who dwell in the Heaven of the Thirty-three : spiritual powers generally, ' gods.' 19 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism Bodhisatta exclaimed again : " If health be frail as the substance of a dream, who then can take delight in joy and pleasure?" And the car was turned, and he returned to the palace. A third time the prince went forth, and now they met a corpse followed by mourners weeping and tearing their hair. " Why does this man lie on a bier," said the prince, " and why do they weep and beat their breasts ? " " Sire/' said the charioteer, " he is dead, and may never more see his father or mother, children or home : he has departed to another world." " Woe then to such youth as is destroyed by age," exclaimed the prince, "and woe to the health that is destroyed by innumerable maladies ! Woe to the life so soon ended ! Would that sickness, age, and death might be for ever bound ! Turn back again, that I may seek a way of deliverance.' 1 When the Bodhisatta drove forth for the last time, he met a hermit, a mendicant friar. This Bhikkhu was self- possessed, serene, dignified, self-controlled, with downcast eyes, dressed in the garb of a religious and carrying a beggar's bowl. " Who is this man of so calm a temper? " said the prince, " clothed in russet garments, and of such dignified demeanour ? " "Sire," said the charioteer, " He is a Bhikkhu, a religious, who has abandoned all longings and leads a life of austerity, he lives without passion or envy, and begs his daily food." The Bodhisatta answered "That is well done, and makes me eager for the same course of life : to become religious has ever been praised by the wise, and this shall be my refuge and the refuge of others and shall yield the fruit of life, and immortality." Again the Bodhisatta returned to his palace. When all these things had been reported to Suddhodana, he surrounded the prince's pleasure-palace by triple walls 20 The Great Renunciation and redoubled the guards, and he commanded the women of the palace to exercise all their charms, to divert the prince's thoughts by music and pleasure : and it was done accordingly. And now Yasodhara was troubled by portentous dreams: she dreamed that the land was devastated by storms, she saw herself naked and mutilated, her beautiful jewels broken, the sun the moon and the stars fell from the sky and Mount Meru sank into the great deep. When she related these dreams to the Bodhisatta, he replied in gentle tones : " You need not fear. It is to the good and the worthy alone that such dreams come, never to the base. Rejoice ! for the purport of all these dreams is that the bond of mortality shall be loosed, the veils of ignorance shall be rent asunder, for I have completely fulfilled the way of wisdom, and every one that has faith in me shall be saved from the three evils, without exception. 5 ' The Great Renunciation The Bodhisatta reflected that he ought not to go forth as a Wanderer without giving notice to his father ; and there- fore he sought the king by night, and said: "Sire, the time is at hand for my going forth, do not hinder me, but permit me to depart." The king's eyes were charged with tears, and he answered : " What is there needful to change thy purpose ? Tell me whatever thou desirest and it shall be thine, be it myself, the palace, or the kingdom." The Bodhisatta replied, " Sire, I desire four things, pray thee grant them : the first, to remain for ever in possession of the fresh colour of youth ; the second, that sickness may never attack me; the third, that my life may have no term ; the last, that I may not be subject to decay." When the king heard these words, he was overcome by grief, for 21 Buddha ^f the Gospel of Buddhism the prince desired what it was not possible for a man to bestow. Then the Bodhisatta continued : "If then I cannot avoid old age, sickness, death and decay, grant at least this one thing, that when I leave this world I may nevermore be subject to rebirth." And when the king could give no better answer, he granted his son's desire. But the next day he established an additional guard of five hundred young men of the Sakyas at each of the four gates of the palace, while the Matron Gautaml established an amazon guard within ; for the king would not allow his son to depart with a free will. At the same time the captains of the Yakkhas 1 assembled together, and they said "To-day, my friends, the Bodhisatta is to go forth ; hasten to do him service." The Four Great Kings 2 commanded the Yakkhas to bear up the feet of the prince's horse. The Thirty-three Devas likewise assembled, and Sakka ordered their services, so that one should cast a heavy sleep on all the men and women and young men and maidens of Kapilavatthu, and another should silence the noise of the elephants, horses, camels, bulls and other beasts; and others constituted themselves an escort, to cast down a rain of flowers and perfume the air. Sakka himself announced that he would open the gates and show the way. On the morning of the day of the going forth, when the Bodhisatta was being attired, a message was brought to him that Yasodhara had borne him a son. He did not rejoice, but he said: "A bond has come into being, a hindrance for me." And the child received the name of Rahula or * Hindrance* accordingly. The same day the Bodhisatta drove again in the city, and a certain noble 1 Yakkhas, nature spirits. 2 The Four Kings, Guardians of the Four Quarters. 22 The Great Renunciation virgin, by name Kisa Gotaml, stood on the roof of her palace and beheld the beauty and majesty of the future Buddha as he passed by, and she made a song : Blessed indeed is the mother^ blessed indeed the father^ Blessed indeed is the wife^ whose is a lord so glorious ! On hearing this the Bodhisatta thought : " She does but say that the heart of a mother, or a father, or a wife is gladdened by such a sight. But by what can every heart attain to lasting happiness and peace ? " The answer arose in his mind: "When the fire of lust is extinguished, then there is peace; and when the fires of resentment and glamour are dead, then there is peace. Sweet is the lesson this singer has taught me, for it is the Nibbana of peace that I have sought This day I shall relinquish the household life, nothing will I seek but Nibbana itself." And taking from his neck the string of pearls he sent it as a teacher's fee to Kisa Gotaml. But she thought that the prince loved her, and sent her a gift because of his love. That night the singers and the dancing-girls exerted them- selves to please the prince: fair as the nymphs of heaven, they danced and sang and played. But the Bodhisatta, his heart being estranged from distraction, took no pleasure in the entertainment, and fell asleep. And the women seeing that he slept, laid aside their instruments and fell asleep likewise. And when the lamps that were fed with scented oil were on the point of dying, the Bodhisatta awoke, and he saw the girls that had seemed so fair, in all the disarray of slumber. And the king's son, seeing them thus dishevelled and disarrayed, breathing heavily, yawning and sprawling in unseemly attitudes, 23 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism was moved to scorn. " Such is the true nature of women,' 1 he thought, " but a man is deceived by dress and jewels and is deluded by a woman's beauties. If a man would but con- sider the natural state of women and the change that comes upon them in sleep, assuredly he would not cherish his folly ; but he is smitten from a right will, and so succumbs to passion." And therewith he resolved to accomplish the Great Renunciation that very night, and at that very time, for it seemed to him that every mode of existence on earth or in heaven most resembled a delay in a house already become the prey of devouring flames ; and his mind was irresistibly directed towards the state of those who have renounced the world. The Bodhisatta therefore rose from his couch and called for Channa; and the charioteer, who was sleeping with his head on the threshold, rose and said: "Sire, I am here." Then the Bodhisatta said: "I am resolved to accomplish the Great Renunciation to-day; saddle my horse." And Channa went out to the stable and saddled Kanthaka: and the horse knew what was the reason of his being saddled, and neighed for joy, so that the whole city would have been aroused, had it not been that the Devas subdued the sound, so that no one heard it. Now while Channa was away in the stable yard, the Bodhisatta thought : " I will take one look at my son," and he went to the door of Yasodhara's chamber. The Mother of Rahula was asleep on a bed strewn thick with jasmine flowers, and her hand was resting on her son's head. The Bodhisatta stopped with his foot upon the threshold, for he thought : " If I lift her hand to take up my son, she will awake, and my departure will be hindered. I will return and see him after I have attained enlightenment." Then he went forth, and seeing the horse ready saddled, 24 The Abhiniskraman, Going Forth of the Bodhisattva. (Nagarjunikoijtfa, Andhra Dynasty, second-third century A.D. (Amaravati). Marble (originally) painted red. 563^" high, 36" wide. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City.) The Departure of the Prince from Kapilavastthu ; he is mounted on Kanthaka, whose hoofs are supported by dwarf Yakas, lest their sound on the pavement be heard and the Endeavor be frustrated. The Bodhisattva's charioteer, Channa (who here bears a sword) is a necessary figure to the story ; he is also manas (mind) leading the horse. To the left a group of musicians playing instruments and dancing ; to the right Indra himself bears the Umbrella over the Prince ; the Gandharvas are part of Indra's entourage. The Regents of the Quarters MSra Darshana: Temptation of the Buddha by Mara's Army. (AmaravatT, second century A.D. Marble relief. 5'9^" x 2W&". Musee Guimet, Paris.) The Great Renunciation he said, "Good Kanthaka, do thou save me this night, to the end that I may become a Buddha by thy help and may save the worlds of men and gods.' 5 Kanthaka neighed again, but the sound of his voice was heard by none. So the Bodhisatta rode forth, preceded by Channa: the Yakkhas bore up the feet of Kanthaka so that they made no sound, and when they came to the guarded gates the angel standing thereby caused them to open silently. At that moment Mara the Fiend appeared in the air, and tempted the Bodhisatta, exclaiming : " Go not forth, my lordl for within seven days from this the Wheel of Sovereignty will appear, and will make you ruler of the four continents and the myriad islands. Go not forth 1 " The Bodhisatta replied: "Maral well I know that this is sooth. But I do not seek the sovereignty of the world. I would become a Buddha, to make tens of thousands of worlds rejoice." And so the tempter left him, but resolved to follow him ever like a shadow, to lay hold of the occasion, if ever a thought of anger or desire should arise in the Bodhisatta's heart. It was on the full-moon day of Asadha when the prince departed from the city. His progress was accompanied by pomp and glory, for the gods and angels bore myriads of torches before and behind him, and a rain of beautiful flowers was cast down from the heaven of Indra, so that the very flanks of Kanthaka were covered. In this way the Bodhisatta advanced a great distance, until they reached and passed over the river Anoma. When they were come to the other side, the Bodhisatta alighted upon the sandy shore and said to Channa : " Good Channa, the time has come when thou must return, and take with thee all my jewels together with Kanthaka, for I am about to become a Buddha ^f the Gospel of Buddhism hermit and a wanderer in these forests. Grieve not for me, but mourn for those who stay behind, bound by longings of which the fruit is sorrow. It is my resolve to seek the highest good this very day, for what con- fidence have we in life when death is ever at hand ? And do you comfort the king, and so speak with him that he may not even remember me, for where affection is lost, there is no sorrow." But Channa protested, and prayed the Bodhisatta to take pity upon the king, and upon Yasodhara and on the city of Kapilavatthu. But again the Bodhisatta answered : " Even were I to return to my kin- dred by reason of affection, yet we should be divided in the end by death. The meeting and parting of living things is as when the clouds having come together drift apart again, or as when the leaves are parted from the trees. There is nothing we may call our own in a union that is nothing but a dream. Therefore, since it is so, go, and grieve not, and say to the people of Kapilavatthu : * Either he will soon return, the conqueror of age and death, or he himself will fail and perish.' " Then Channa too would have become a hermit: but the Bodhisatta answered again: "If your love is so great, yet go, deliver the message, and return." Then the Bodhisatta took the sharp sword that Channa bore and severed with it his long locks and jewelled crest and cast them into the waters : and at the moment when he felt the need of a hermit's dress, there appeared a deva in the guise of a hunter clad in the russet robes of a forest-sage and he, receiving the white muslin garments of the prince, rendered to him the dark red robes in return, and so departed. Now Kanthaka attended to all that had been said, and he licked the Bodhisatta's feet; and the prince spoke to 26 The Search for the Way of Escape him as to a friend, and said : " Grieve not, O Kanthaka, for thy perfect equine nature has been proved bear with it, and soon thy pain shall bear its fruit." But Kanthaka, thinking: "From this day forth I shall never see my master more," went out of their sight, and there died of a broken heart and was reborn in the Heaven of the Thirty- three. Then Channa's grief was doubled; and torn by the second sorrow of the death of Kanthaka, he returned to the city weeping and wailing, and the Bodhisatta was left alone. The Search for The Way of Escape The Bodhisatta remained for a week in the Mango-grove of Anupiya, and thereafter he proceeded to Rajagaha, the chief town of Magadha. He begged his food from door to door, and the beauty of his person cast the whole city into commotion. When this was made known to the king Bimbisara, he went to the place where the Bodhi- satta was sitting, and offered to bestow upon him the whole kingdom: but again the Bodhisatta refused the royal throne, for he had already abandoned all in the hope of attaining enlightenment, and did not desire a worldly empire. But he granted the king's request that when he had found the way, he would preach it first in that same kingdom. It is said that when the Bodhisatta entered a hermitage for the first time (and this was before he proceeded to Rajagaha) he found the sages practising many and strange penances, and he inquired their meaning, and what was the purpose that each endeavoured to achieve and received the answer "By such penances endured for a time, by the higher they attain heaven, and by the lower, favourable fruit in the world of men : by pain they come 27 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism at last to happiness, for pain, they say, is the root of merit." But to him it seemed that here there was no way of escape here too, men endured misery for the sake of happiness, and that happiness itself, rightly understood, consisted in pain, for it must ever be subject to mortality and to rebirth. " It is not the effort itself which I blame," he said, " which casts aside the base and follows a higher path of its own : but the wise in sooth, by all this heavy toil, ought to attain to the state where nothing ever needs to be done again. And since it is the mind that controls the body, it is thought alone that should be restrained. Neither purity of food nor the waters of a sacred river can cleanse the heart : water is but water, but the true place of pilgrimage is the virtue of the virtuous man." And now, rejecting with courtesy the king's offers, the Bodhisatta made his way to the hermitage of the renowned sage Alara Kalama and became his disciple, learning the successive degrees of ecstatic meditation. Alara taught, it is clear, the doctrine of the Atman, saying that the sage who is versed in the Supreme Self, "having abolished himself by himself, sees that nought exists and is called a Nihilist : then, like a bird from its cage, the soul escaping from the body, is declared to be set free: this is that supreme Brahman, constant, eternal, and without distinctive signs, which the wise who know reality declare to be liberation." But Gautama (and it is by this name that the books now begin to speak of the Bodhisatta) ignores the phrase "without distinctive signs," and with verbal justification quarrels with the animistic and dualistic terminology of soul and body: a liberated soul; he argued, is still a soul, and whatever the condition it attains, must be subject to rebirth, "and since each successive re- nunciation is held to be still accompanied by qualities, I 28 The Search for the Way of Escape maintain that the absolute attainment of our end is only to be found in the abandonment of everything/' * And now leaving the hermitages of Rajagaha the Bodhi- satta, seeking something beyond, repaired to a forest near to the village of Uruvela and there abode on the pure bank of the Nairanjana. There five wanderers, begging hermits, came to him, for they were persuaded that ere long he would attain enlightenment: and the leader of these was Kondanna, the erstwhile Brahman soothsayer who had prophesied at the festival of the Bodhisatta's name day. And now thinking: "This may be the means to conquer birth and death/' Gautama for six years practised there an austere rule of fasting and of mortification, so that his glorious body wasted away to skin and bone. He brought himself to feed on a single sesamum seed or a grain of rice, until one day, as he paced to and fro, he was overcome by weakness, and fainted and fell. Then certain of the Devas exclaimed " Gautama is dead ! " and some reported it to Suddhodana the king at Kapilavatthu. But he replied : " I may not believe it. Never would my son die without attaining enlightenment. " For he did not forget the miracle at the foot of the Jambu-tree, nor the day when the great sage Kala Devala had felt compelled to offer homage to the child. And the Bodhisatta recovered, and stood up ; and again the gods reported it to the king. Now the fame of the Bodhisatta's exceeding penances became spread abroad, as the sound of a great bell is 1 We recognize here the critical moment where Buddhist and Brahman thought part company on the question of the Atman. Whether Alara failed to emphasize the negative aspect of the doctrine of the Brahman, or Gautama (who is represented as so far entirely innocent of Brahmanical philosophy) failed to distinguish the neuter Brahman from the god Brahma, we cannot tell. The question is discussed at greater length in Part III, Chapter IV. (p. 198 f.) 29 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism heard in the sky. But he perceived that mortification was not the road to enlightenment and to liberation " that was the true way that I found beneath the Jambu- tree, and it cannot be attained by one who has lost his strength." And so again the Great Being resolved to beg his food in towns and villages, that his health and strength might be restored. This was in the thirtieth year of the life of Gautama. But the Five Disciples reflected that Gautama had not been able to attain en- lightenment even by six years of the most severe austerities, " and how can he do so now, when he goes and begs in the villages and eats of ordinary food?" and they departed from him and went to the suburb of Benares called Isipatana. The Supreme Enlightenment Now during the time that Gautama had been dwelling in the forest near by Uruvela, the daughter of the village headman, by name Sujata, had been accustomed to make a daily offering of food to eight hundred Brahmans, making the prayer "May the Bodhisatta at length receive an offering of food from me, attain enlightenment, and become a Buddha ! " And now that the time had come when he desired to receive nourishing food, a Deva appeared in the night to Sujata and announced that the Bodhisatta had put aside his austerities and desired to partake of good and nourishing food, " and now shall your prayer be accomplished." Then Sujata with all speed arose early and went to her father's herd. Now for a long time she had been accustomed to take the milk of a thousand cows and to feed therewith five hundred, and again with their milk to feed two hundred and fifty, and so on until eight only were fed with the milk of the rest, and this she called 30 The Supreme Enlightenment " working the milk in and in." It was the full-moon day of the month of May when she received the message of the gods, and rose early, and milked the eight cows, and took the milk and boiled it in new pans, and prepared milk-rice. At the same time she sent her maid Punna to the foot of the great tree where she had been wont to lay her daily offerings. Now the Bodhisatta, knowing that he would that day attain Supreme Enlightenment, was sitting at the foot of the tree, awaiting the hour for going forth to beg his food ; and such was his glory that all the region of the East was lit up. The girl thought that it was the spirit of the tree who would deign to receive the offering with his own hands. When she returned to Sujata and reported this, Sujata embraced her and bestowed on her the jewels of a daughter, and exclaimed, " Henceforth thou shalt be to me in the place of an elder daughter ! " And sending for a golden vessel she put the well-cooked food therein, and covered it with a pure white cloth, and bore it with dignity to the foot of the great Nigrodha-tree; and there she too saw the Bodhisatta, and believed him to be the spirit of the tree. Sujata approached him, and placed the vessel in his hand, and she met his gaze and said : " My lord, accept what I have offered thee," and she added " May there arise to thee as much of joy as has come to mel " and so she departed. The Bodhisatta took the golden bowl, and went down to the bank of the river and bathed, and then dressing himself in the garb of an Arahat, he again took his seat, with his face towards the East. 1 He divided the rice into forty- nine portions, and this food sufficed for his nourishment during the forty-nine days following the Enlightenment. When he had finished eating the milk rice, he took the golden vessel and cast it into the stream, saying " If I am 1 In ancient India the East was considered the most auspicious quarter. Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism able to attain Enlightenment to-day, let this pot go up stream, but if not, may it go down stream." And he threw it into the water, and it went swiftly up the river until it reached the whirlpool of the Black Snake King, and there it sank. The Bodhisatta spent the heat of the day in a grove of Sal-trees beside the stream. But in the evening he made his way to the foot of the Tree of Wisdom, and there, making the resolution : " Though my skin, my nerves and my bones should waste away and my life-blood dry, I will not leave this seat until I have attained Supreme Enlighten- ment," he took his seat with his face towards the East. At this moment Mara the Fiend became aware that the Bodhisatta had taken his seat with a view to attaining Perfect Enlightenment; and thereupon, summoning the hosts of the demons, and mounting his elephant of war, he advanced towards the Tree of Wisdom. And there stood Maha Brahma holding above the Bodhisatta a white canopy of state, and Sakka, blowing the great trumpet, and with them were all the companies of gods and angels. But so terrible was the array of Mara that there was not one of all this host of the Devas that dared to remain to face him. The Great Being was left alone. First of all, however, Mara assumed the form of a messenger, with disordered garments, and panting in haste, bearing a letter from the Sakya princes. And in the letter it was written that Devadatta had usurped the kingdom of Kapilavatthu and entered the Bodhisatta' s palace, taken his goods and his wife, and cast Suddhodana into prison and they prayed him to return to restore peace and order. But the Bodhisatta reflected lust it was that had caused Devadatta thus to misuse the women, malice had made him imprison Suddhodana, while the Sakyas neutralized 32 The Supreme Enlightenment by cowardice failed to defend their King : and so reflecting on the folly and weakness of the natural heart, his own resolve to attain a higher and better state was strengthened and confirmed. 1 Failing in this device, Mara now advanced to the assault with all his hosts, striving to overcome the Bodhisatta first by a terrible whirlwind, then by a storm of rain, causing a mighty flood : but the hem of the Bodhisatta's robe was not stirred, nor did a single drop of water reach him. Then Mara cast down upon him showers of rocks, and a storm of deadly and poisoned weapons, burning ashes and coals, and a storm of scorching sand and flaming mud ; but all these missiles only fell at the Bodhisatta' s feet as a rain of heavenly flowers, or hung in the air like a canopy above his head. Nor could he be moved by an onset of thick and fourfold darkness. Then finding all these means to fail, he addressed the Bodhisatta and said : " Arise, Siddhattha, from that seat, for it is not thine, but mine I " The Bodhisatta replied, "Mara! thou hast not accom- plished the Ten Perfections, nor even the minor virtues. Thou hast not sought for knowledge, nor for the salvation of the world. The seat is mine." Then Mara was enraged, and cast at the Bodhisatta his Sceptre-javelin, which cleaves asunder a pillar of solid rock like a tender shoot of cane : and all the demon hosts hurled masses of rock. But the javelin hung in the air like a canopy, and the masses of rock fell down as garlands of flowers. Then the Great Being said to Mara: "Mara, who is the witness that thou hast given alms ?" Mara stretched forth his hand, and a shout arose from the demon hosts, of a 1 Cf^ " The sages of old first got Tao for themselves, and then got it for others. Before you possess this yourself, what leisure have you to attend to the doings of wicked men ? " Chuang Tzu. See also p. 126. 33 Buddha &f the Gospel of Buddhism thousand voices crying : " I am his witness ! " Then the Fiend addressed the Bodhisatta, and enquired: "Sidd- hattha! who is the witness that thou hast given alms? " and the Great Being answered : " Mara thou hast many and living witnesses that thou hast given alms, and no such witnesses have I. But apart from the alms I have given in other births, I call upon this solid earth to witness to my supernatural generosity when I was born as Vessantara." And drawing his right hand from his robe, he stretched it forth to touch the earth, and said : " Do you or do you not witness to my supernatural generosity when I was born as Vessantara ? " And the great Earth replied with a voice of thunder: " I am witness of that. 55 And thereat the great elephant of Mara bowed down in adoration, and the demon hosts fled far away in dread. Then Mara was abashed. But he did not withdraw, for he hoped to accomplish by another means what he could not effect by force: he summoned his three daughters, Tanha, Rati, and Raga, and they danced before the Bodhisatta like the swaying branches of a young leafy tree, using all the arts of seduction known to beautiful women. Again they offered him the lordship of the earth, and the companionship of beautiful girls : they appealed to him with songs of the season of spring, and exhibited their supernatural beauty and grace. But the Bodhi- satta' s heart was not in the least moved, and he answered : Pleasure is brief as a flask of lightning Or like an Autumn shower, only for a moment. . . Why should I then covet the pleasures you speak of? I see your bodies are full of all impurity : Birth and death, sickness and age are yours. I seek the highest prize, hard to attain by men The true and constant wisdom of the wise. 34 Tlie Supreme Enlightenment And when they could not shake the Bodhisatta's calm, they were filled with shame, and abashed : and they made a prayer to the Bodhisatta, wishing him the fruition of his labour: That which your heart desires, may you attain, Andfinding for yourself deliverance, deliver all! 1 And now the hosts of heaven, seeing the army of Mara defeated, and the wiles of the daughters of Mara vain, assembled to honour the Conqueror, they came to the foot of the Tree of Wisdom and cried for joy : The Blessed Buddha he hath prevailed! And the Tempter is overthrown ! The victory was achieved while the sun was yet above the horizon. The Bodhisatta sank into ever deeper and deeper thought. In the first watch of the night he reached the Knowledge of Former States of being, in the middle watch he obtained the heavenly eye of Omniscient Vision, and in the third watch he grasped the perfect under- standing of the Chain of Causation 2 which is the Origin of Evil, and thus at break of day he attained to Perfect Enlightenment, Therewith there broke from his lips the song of triumph : Through many divers births I passed Seeking in vain the builder of the house? 1 According to other books the temptation by the daughters of Mara is subsequent to the Supreme Enlightenment. In Plate "D the Temp- tation by the Daughters of Mara takes place in the fifth week of the Forty-nine Days. 2 Chain of Causation: the origin of which is ignorance (avijja), some- times referred to as evil. 3 The house is, of course, the house or rather the prison of indi- vidual existence: the builder of the house is desire (tanhS) the will to enjoy and possess. See p. 97. IS Buddha &P the Gospel of Buddhism But O framer of houses, thou art found Never again shalt thou fashion a house for me ! Broken are all thy beams^ The king-post shattered! My mind has passed into the stillness of Nibbana The ending of desire has been attained at last! Innumerable wonders were manifest at this supreme hour. The earth quaked six times, and the whole universe was illuminated by the supernatural splendour of the sixfold rays that proceeded from the body of the seated Buddha. Resentment faded from the hearts of all men, all lack was supplied, the sick were healed, the chains of hell were loosed, and every creature of whatsoever sort found peace and rest. The Forty-nine Days Gautama, who was now Buddha, the Enlightened, remained seated and motionless for seven days, realizing the bliss of Nibbana; and thereafter rising, he remained standing for seven days more, steadfastly regarding the spot where had been won the fruit of countless deeds of heroic virtue performed in past births: then for seven days more he paced to and fro along a cloistered path from West to East, extending from the throne beneath the Wisdom Tree to the place of the Steadfast Gazing; and again for seven days he remained seated in a god-wrought pavilion near to the same place, and there reviewed in detail, book by book, all that is taught in the Abhidhamma Pitaka> as well as the whole doctrine of causality; then for seven days more he sat beneath the Nigrodha tree of Sujata's offering, meditating on the doctrine and the sweetness of Nibbana and according to- some books it was at this time the temptation by the daughters of Mara took place ; 36 D The Forty-Nine Days. Scenes from the life of the Buddha: part of the sat satiya, or seven weeks fast. (Part of an illuminated MS. Sinhalese, written in 1811 A.D., this MS was in the possession of a monk named Velivita, of Mal- vatte Pansaal, to whom it had descended in pupillary succession at' the begin- ning of our century. Coomaraswamy, A. K., Mediaeval Sinhalese Art, 2nd edition, 1956, p. 180. Original measurements, 9^" x 9%".) Top left: Buddha seated in the golden palace erected by the Devas (Gods) reflecting on the Dharma, S., Dhamma, P. Top right : Buddha seated beneath the tree Ajapala, tempted by the daughters of Mara. (This tree is variously named.) Lower left : Buddha sheltered by the Naga Mucalinda. Lower right: Buddha receiving offerings of milk-rice from two Brahman merchants, and an alms-bowl from the Regents of the four-Quarters. The First Sermon, "Turning the Wheel of the Law/' (Gupta period, fifth century A.D. Chunar sandstone. 5'3" high. Sarnath Museum, Benares.) This full relief figure represents the Buddha in yogasana posture, hands in dharmacakra mudra (turning the Word- Wheel, Logos) at the Deer Park, Benares. The Wheel on the pedestal symbolizes the preaching of the First Ser- mon, the two badly damaged deer on either side of the wheel, the locality. The two figures to the left and three to the right of the wheel, with shaven heads, are K-.UI,, +u TT;^ rvrninaninn*: who deserted the Bodhisattva at Gaya, but after- The Forty-nine Days and then for seven days more while a terrible storm was raging, the snake king Mucalinda sheltered him with his sevenfold hood; and for seven days more he sat beneath a Rajayatana tree, still enjoying the sweetness of liberation. And so passed away seven weeks, during which the Buddha experienced no bodily wants, but fed on the joy of contemplation, the joy of the Eightfold Path, and the joy of its fruit, Nibbana. Only upon the last day of the seven weeks he desired to bathe and eat, and receiving water and a tooth-stick from the god Sakka, the Buddha bathed his face and seated himself at the foot of a tree. Now at that time two Brahman merchants were travelling with a caravan from Orissa to the middle country, and a Deva, who had been a blood relation of the merchants in a former life, stopped the carts, and moved their hearts to make an offering of rice and honey cakes to the Lord. They went up to him accordingly, saying : " O Blessed One, have mercy upon us, and accept this food." Now the Buddha no longer possessed a bowl, and as the Buddhas never receive an offering in their hands, he reflected how he should take it. Immediately the Four Great Kings, the Regents of the Quarters appeared before him, each of them with a bowl; and in order that none of them should be disappointed, the Buddha received the four bowls, and placing them one above the other made them to be one, showing only the four lines round the mouth, and in this bowl the Blessed One received the food, and ate it, and gave thanks. The two merchants took refuge in the Buddha, the Norm, and the Order, and became professed disciples. Then the Buddha rose up and returned again to the tree of Sujata's offering and there took his seat. And there, reflecting 37 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism upon the depth of truth which he had found, a doubt arose in his mind whether it would be possible to make it known to others : and this doubt is experienced by every Buddha when he becomes aware of the Truth. But Maha Brahma exclaiming : " Alas ! the world will be altogether lost 1 " came thither in haste, with all the Deva hosts, and besought the Master to proclaim the Truth; and he granted their prayer. 1 The First Turning of the Wheel of the Law Then he considered to whom he should first reveal the Truth , and he remembered Alara, his former teacher, and Uddaka, thinking that these great sages would quickly comprehend it; but upon close reflection he discovered that each of them had recently died. Then he thought of the Five Wanderers who had been his companions, and upon reflection he saw that they were then residing in the Deer Park at Isipatana in Benares, and he resolved to go there. When the Five Wanderers, whose chief was Kondanna, perceived the Buddha afar off, they said together: " My friends, here comes Gautama the Bhikkhu. We owe him no reverence, since he has returned to a free use of the necessaries of life, and has recovered his strength, and beauty. However, as he is well-born, let us prepare him a seat." But the Blessed One perceived their thought, 1 " Great truths do not take hold of the hearts of the masses. . . . And now, as all the world is in error, I, though I know the true path how shall I, how shall I guide ? If I know that I cannot succeed and yet try to force success, this would be but another source of error. Better, then, to desist and strive no more. But if I strive not, who will ? " Chuang Tzu. It is highly characteristic of the psychology of genius that when this doubt assails the Buddha he nevertheless immediately responds to a definite request for guidance ; the moment the pupil puts the right questions, the teacher's doubts are resolved. 38 The First Turning of the Wheel of the Law and concentrating that love wherewith he was able to pervade the whole world, he directed it specially towards them. And this love being diffused in their hearts, as he approached, they could not adhere to their resolve, but rose from their seats and bowed before him in all reverence. But not knowing that he had attained enlightenment, they addressed him as 'brother.' He, however, announced the Enlightenment, saying: "O Bhikkhus, do not address me as 'Brother, 5 for I have become a Buddha of clear vision even as those who came before." Now the Buddha took his seat that had been prepared for him by the Five Wanderers, and he taught them the first sermon, which is called Setting in Motion the Wheel of the Law, or the Foundation of the Kingdom of Righteousness. "There are two extremes which he who has gone forth ought not to follow habitual devotion on the one hand to the passions, to the pleasures of sensual things, a low and pagan way (of seeking satisfaction), ignoble, un- profitable, fit only for the worldly-minded ; and habitual devotion, on the other hand, to self-mortification, which is painful, ignoble, unprofitable. There is a Middle Path discovered by the Tathagata 1 a path which opens the eyes, and bestows understanding, which leads to peace, to insight, to the higher wisdom, to Nirvana. Verily 1 it is this Ariyan Eightfold Path ; that is to say Right Views, Right Aspirations, Right Speech, Right Conduct, Right mode of livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Rapture. "Now this is the Noble Truth as to suffering. Birth is 1 That is by the Arahat ; the title the Buddha always uses of him- self. He does not call himself the Buddha ; and his followers never address him as such. 39 Buddha @f the Gospel of Buddhism attended with pain, decay is painful, disease is painful, death is painful. Union with the unpleasant is painful, painful is separation from the pleasant ; and any craving unsatisfied, that, too, is painful. In brief, the five aggregates of clinging (that is, the conditions of indi- viduality) are painful. " Now this is the Noble Truth as to the origin of suffering. Verily! it is the craving thirst that causes the renewal of becomings, that is accompanied by sensual delights, and seeks satisfaction, now here now there that is to say, the craving for becoming (or life), and the craving for prosperity. " Now this is the Noble Truth as to the passing away of suffering. Verily! it is the passing away so that no passion remains, the giving up, the getting rid of, the emancipation from, the harbouring no longer of this craving thirst. " Now this is the Noble Truth as to the way that leads to the passing away of suffering. Verily! it is this Ariyan Eightfold Path, that is to say, Right Views, Right Aspirations, Right Speech, conduct, and mode of live- lihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Rapture." * Now of the band of Bhikkhus to whom the first sermon was thus preached, Kondanna immediately attained to the fruit of the First Path, and the four others attained to the same station in the course of the next four days. On the fifth day the Buddha summoned all five to his side, and delivered to them the second discourse called " On the Non-existence of Soul," of which the substance is related as follows : " The body, O Bhikkhus, cannot be the created soul, for it tends toward destruction. Nor do sensation, perception, 1 Rhys Davids, Early Buddhism^ pp. 51, 52. 40 The First Sermon, "Turning the Wheel of the Law." (Eighth-ninth century A.D, Nepalese gilt copper. 3#" high. Boston Museum of Fine Arts.) Seated Buddha with hands in dharma-cakra-mudra, (Referred to on p. 331.) The Buddha Teaching, Yaku-shi Nyorai (Tathagata). (Eighth century, Japa- nese. Wood core, dried lacquer, gilt 245 m. high. Imperial Museum, Kyoto.) Yaku-shi as the Buddha 1 He is also considered the representation of Shaka. Yaku-shi is usually the "Healing Physician," and shown with a medi- cine-bowl. Generally he is ants. In this instance his ied by two Bodhisattvas who are his assist- were Nikko and Gakko, although these two icons are not of the same period. He is shown alone because the others of this triad are, one, at the Tokyo Art School, the other, at the Tokyo National Museum. Yaku-shi is held in such veneration that to worship him properly is to * -' -1- *-^~ :- ~..,~-u *yv o4 A />f o /MII*A fnr The First Turning of the Wheel of the Law the predispositions, or consciousness together or separ- ately constitute the created soul, for were it so, it would not be the case that the;<50fiscio>usness likewise tends towards destruction. Or how, fhirik you, whether is form perma- nent or transitory? -and whether are sensation, perception, and predispositions and consciousness permanent or transitory .V 'They are transitory/ replied the Five. ' And that which is transitory, is it evil or good? ' ' It is evil/ replied the Five. ' And that which is transitory, evil, and liable to change, can it be said that ' This is mine, this am I, this is my created soul ? ' ' Nay, verily, it cannot be so said/ replied the Five. ' Then, O Bhik- khus, it must be said of all physical form whatsoever, past or present or to be, subjective or objective, far or near, high or low, that " This is not mine, this am I not, this is not my created soul." ' And in like manner of all sensations, perceptions, predispositions and conscious- ness, it must be said, ' These are not mine, these am I not, these are not my created soul/ And perceiving this, O Bhikkhus, the true disciple will conceive a disgust for physical form, and for sensation, perception, predis- positions and consciousness, and so will be divested of desire; and thereby he is freed, and becomes aware that he is freed; and he knows that becoming is ex- hausted, that he has lived the pure life, that he has done' what it behoved him do, and that he has put off mortality for ever/' And through this discourse the minds of the Five were perfectly enlightened, and each of them attained to Nibbana, so that at this time there existed five Arahats in the world, with the Buddha himself the sixth. The next day a young man of the name of Yasa, together with fifty-four companions likewise attained illumination, and thus there were sixty persons beside the Master himself, Buddha ftP the Gospel of Buddhism who had attained to Arahatta. These sixty the Master sent forth in diverse directions, with the command : " Go forth, O Bhikkhus, preaching and teaching." But he himself proceeded to Uruvela, and upon the way he received into the Order thirty young noblemen, and these also he sent forth far and wide. At Uruvela the Master prevailed against three Brahmanical ascetics, fire-worship- pers, and received them into the Order with all their disciples, and established them in Arahatta. The chief of these was known as Uruvela Kassapa. And when they were seated on the Gay a Scarp, he preached the Third Sermon called the Discourse on Fire : "All things, O Bhikkhus are on fire. And what, O Bhikkhus, are all these things that are on fire ? The eye is on fire, forms are on fire, eye-consciousness is on fire, impressions received by the eye are on fire; and whatever sensation pleasant, unpleasant, or neutral originates in the impressions received by the eye, is likewise on fire. "And with what are all these on fire? I say with the fire of lust, of resentment, and the fire of glamour (raga. dosa, and moha) ; with birth, old age, death, Iamentation 3 misery, grief and despair they are afire. " And so with the ear, with the nose, and with the tongue, and in the case of touch. The mind too, is on fire, thoughts are on fire; and mind-consciousness, and the impressions received by the mind, and the sensations that arise from the impressions that the mind receives, these too are on fire. " And with what are they on fire ? I say with the fire oi lust, with the fire of resentment, and the fire of glamour : with birth, old age, death, sorrow, lamentation, misery, and grief and despair, they are afire. " And seeing this, O Bhikkhus, the true disciple conceives 42 Conversion of Sariputta ^f Mogallana 1 O disgust for the eye, for forms, for eye-consciousness, for impressions received by the eye, and for the sensations arising therein; and for the ear, the nose, the tongue, and for the sense of touch, and for the mind, and for thoughts and mind-consciousness, impressions, and sensations. And so he is divested of desire, and thereby he is freed, and is aware that he is freed, and he knows that becoming is exhausted, that he has lived the pure life, that he has done what it behoved him to do, and that he has put off mortality for ever." x And in the course of the Sermon upon Fire, the minds of the thousand Bhikkhus assembled there were freed from attachment and delivered from the stains, and so attained to Arahatta and Nibbana. Conversion of Sariputta and Mogga/fana And now the Buddha, attended by the thousand Arahats of whom the chief was Uruvela Kassapa, repaired to the Palm Grove near by Rajagaha, to redeem the promise that was made to Bimbisara the king. When it was reported to the king: "The Master is come," he hastened to the grove, and fell at the Buddha's feet, and when he had thus offered homage he and all his retinue sat down. Now the king was not able to know whether the Buddha had become the disciple of Uruvela Kassapa, or Uruvela Kassapa of the Buddha, and to resolve the doubt Uruvela Kassapa bowed down to the Master's feet, saying: "The Blessed Lord is my master, and I am the disciple." All the people cried out at the great power of the Buddha, exclaiming : " Even Uruvela Kassapa has broken through the net of delusion and has yielded to the follower of the 1 Mahavagga, Lai (a summary of the version by Warren, Buddhism in Translations ', p. 351). 43 Buddha ^f the Gospel of Buddhism Buddhas of the past!" To show that this was not the first time that Kassapa the Great had yielded to him the Blessed One recited the Maha Narada Kassapa Jataka ; and he proclaimed the Four Noble Truths. The king of Magadha, with nearly all his retinue entered the First Path, and those who did not do so, became lay disciples. The king gave a great endowment to the Order, with Buddha at their head, and confirmed it by the pouring out of water. And when the Master had thus received the Bambu-grove Monastery, he returned thanks, and rose from his seat, and repaired thither. Now at this time there dwelt two Brahmanical ascetics near to Rajagaha, by name Sariputta and Moggallana. Now Sariputta ob- served the venerable Arahat Assaji on his begging round, and remarked the dignity and grace of his demeanour; and when the Elder had obtained alms, and was departing from the city, Sariputta found occasion to speak with him, and enquired who was his teacher, and what the accepted doctrine. Assaji replied, "Brother, there is a great Sakya monk, to follow whom I left the world and this Blessed One is my teacher, and the doctrine I approve is his." Then Sariputta enquired : " What then, venerable sir, is your teacher's doctrine?" "Brother," replied Assaji, " I am a novice and a beginner, and it is not long that I have retired from the world to adopt the discipline and Doctrine. Therefore I may only set forth to you the doctrine in brief, and give the substance of it in a few words." Then the venerable Assaji repeated to Sariputta the Wanderer, the following verse : What things soever are produced from causes^ Of these the Buddha hath revealed the cause, And likewise how they cease to be: 9 Tis this the great adept proclaims. 44 Return of the Buddha to Kapilavatthu And hearing this exposition of the Doctrine, Sariputta the Wanderer attained to a clear and distinct perception of the Truth that whatever is subject to origination is subject also to cessation. 1 And thus Sariputta attained to the First Path. Then returning to Moggallana, he repeated to him the same verse, and he too attained to the First Path. And these two, leaving their former teacher, entered the order established by the Buddha, and within a short time both attained to Arahatta, and the Master made them his Chief Disciples. Return of the Buddha to Kapilcmatthu In the meanwhile it was reported to Suddhodana that his son, who for six years had devoted himself to mortifica- tion, had attained to Perfect Enlightenment, had set rolling the Wheel of the Law, and was residing at the Bambu Grove near by Rajagaha. And he sent a mes- senger with a retinue of a thousand men with the message "Your father, king Suddhodana, desires to see you." They reached the monastery at the hour of instruction, and standing still to listen to the discourse, the messenger attained to Arahatta with all his retinue, and prayed to be admitted to the Order; and the Buddha received them. And being now indifferent to the things of the world, they did not deliver the king's message. In the 1 The most essential element of Buddhist doctrine, the full realisation of which constitutes the enlightenment of a Buddha, is here stated in the fewest possible words. The clear enunciation of the law of uni- versal causation the eternal continuity of becoming is the great contribution of the Buddha to Indian thought; for, historically speaking, it is only with comparative difficulty that the Vedanta is able to free itself from the concept of a First Cause. Assaji's verse is often called the Buddhist Confession of Faith; it is quoted in Buddhist inscriptions more frequently than any other text. 45 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism same way the king sent other messengers, each with a like retinue, and all of these, neglecting their business, stayed away there in silence. Then the king prevailed upon his minister Kaludayin to bear the message, and he consented to do so only upon condition of receiving per- mission to become a member of the Order himself. " My friend," the king said, ** thou mayst become a hermit or not, as thou wilt, only bring it about that I may see my son before I die." Kaludayin repaired to Rajagaha, and standing beside the disciples at the hour of instruction, he attained to Arahatta, and was received into the Order. Now at this time eight months had passed since the Enlightenment, and of this time, the first Lent or Rainy Season was spent at the Deer Park in Benares, the next three months at Uruvela, and two months at Rajagaha. And now the cold season was over, the earth was decked with green grass, and the trees with scarlet flowers, and the roads were pleasant to to the traveller. And on the full-moon day in March, Kaludayin, a full week since his admission to the Order, spoke with the Buddha, and proposed to him that he should visit his father, who desired to see him. And the Master, foreseeing that salvation of many would result, assented, saying to Kaludayin: "Well said, Udayin, I shall go." For it was in accordance with the Rule that the Brethren should travel from place to place. Attended by twenty thousand well-born Arahats, and travelling each day a league, he reached Kapilavatthu in two months. But Kaludayin went instantly through the air, and informed the king that his son had taken the road, and by praising the virtues of the Buddha every day, he predisposed the Sakyas in his favour. The Sakyas considered what would be the most pleasant 46 H Colossal Standing Image of a monastic Buddha with elaborate aura. (Early Gupta. Fifth century A.D. Red Sandstone. 7'2" high. Mathura Museum, Mathura ) Described on pp. 331-332, this is one of the four classical types of Conversion of the Sakya Princes place for his residence, and they chose the Nigrodha- grove near by the city. With flowers in their hands, and accompanied by children of the place and the young men and maidens of the royal family, they went out to meet him, and led him to the grove. But regarding him as younger than themselves, as it were a younger brother, a nephew, or a grandson, they did not bow down. But the Buddha, understanding their thoughts, performed the miracle of taking his seat upon a jewelled platform in the air, and so preaching the law. And the king seeing this wonder said : " O Blessed One, when Kala Devala bowed down to your feet on the day of thy birth I did obeisance to thee for the first time. And when I saw that the shadow of the Jambu-tree remained motionless upon the occasion of the ploughing festival I did obeisance for the second time; and now, because of this great miracle, I bow again to thy feet." And there was not one of the Sakyas who did not bow to the Buddha's feet at the same time. Then the Blessed One descended from the air, and sat upon the throne that had been prepared for him, and there he delivered a discourse, to wit, the story of his former birth as Prince Vessantara. Conversion of the Sakya Princes The next day the master entered Kapilavatthu to beg his food, attended by the twenty thousand Arahats. When it was rumoured that the young prince Siddhattha was begging from door to door, the windows of the many storied houses were opened wide, and a multitude gazed forth in amazement. And amongst these was the mother of Rahula, and she said to herself; "Is it right that my lord, who was wont to go to and from in this town in a gilded palanquin, with every sign of pomp, should now be 47 Buddha SP the Gospel of Buddhism begging his food from door to door, with shaven hair and beard, and clad in russet robes?" And she reported the matter to the king. He, instantly rising, went forth to remonstrate with his son, that thus he put the Sakya clan to shame. " Do you think it impossible," said he, "that we should provide meals for all your followers?" "It is our custom, O king!" was the reply. "Not so, Master," said the king; "not one of all our ancestors has ever begged his food." " O king," replied the Buddha, " thy descent is in the succession of kings, but mine in the succession of the Buddhas : and every one of these has begged his daily food, and lived upon alms." And standing in the middle of the street he uttered the verse : Arise and delay not* follow after the pure life ! Who follows virtue rests in bliss > alike in this world and the next. And when the verse was finished the king attained to the Fruit of the First Path, Then the Buddha continued : Follow after the pure life, follow not after sin ! Who follows virtue rests in bliss alike in this world and the next. And the king attained to the Fruit of the Second Path. Then the Buddha recited the Dhammapala Jataka* and the king attained to the Fruit of the Third Path. It was when he was dying that the king attained to Arahatta: he never practised the Great Effort in solitude. Now as soon as the king had experienced the Fruit of Conversion, he took the Buddha's bowl and led the Blessed One and all his followers to the palace, and served them with savoury food. Conversion of the Sakya Princes And when the meal was over, the women of the house came and paid homage to the Blessed One, except only the Mother of Rahula; but she stayed alone, for she thought, " If I have the least value in the eyes of my lord he will come himself to me, and then I will do him homage." And the Buddha went accordingly to the chamber of the Mother of Rahula, and he was accom- panied by the two chief Disciples, and he sat down on the seat prepared for him. Then the Mother of Rahula came quickly and put her hands upon his ankles and laid her head upon his feet, and so did homage as she had purposed. Then the king said to the Blessed One, "When my daughter heard that thou hadst put on the russet robes, from that day forth she also dressed only in russet garb ; and when she heard of thy one meal a day, she also took but a single meal; and when she heard that thou hadst forsaken the use of a high couch, she also slept upon a mat on the floor; and when her relatives would have received her and surrounded her with luxury, she did not hear them. Such is her good- ness, Blessed One." " 'Tis no wonder," said the Blessed One, " that she exercises self-control now, when her wisdom is matured ; for she did no less when her wisdom was not yet matured." And he related the Canda-kinnam Jataka. On the second day the son of Suddhodana and the Lady Gautami was to celebrate at the same time his inaugura- tion as crown prince and his marriage with Janapada KalyanI, the Beauty of the Land. But the Buddha went to his house, and there gave him his bowl to carry; and with a view to his abandoning the world, he wished him true happiness; and then rising from his seat he went his way. And the young man, not venturing to say to the Master, "Take back thy bowl," perforce followed 49 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism him to the place of his retreat : and the Buddha received him all unwilling as he was, into the Order, and he was ordained. Upon the morrow the Mother of Rahula arrayed the child in all its best and sent him to the Blessed One, saying to him : " Look, my dear, at yonder Monk, attended by so many Brethren : he is your father, who was the possessor of a great treasure, which we have not seen since he left us. Go now and say, *O Father, I am thy son, and I have need of the treasure give me the treasure, for a son is heir to his father's property.' " And even so the child went up to the Blessed One and stood before him gladly and cheerfully. And when the Blessed One had finished his meal, he arose and went away, and the boy followed him, saying, as his mother had taught him, " O Monk 1 give to me my inheritance.' 5 Then the Blessed One said to Sariputta, "Well, then, Sariputta, receive Rahula into our Order.' 5 But when the king learnt that his grandson had been ordained he was deeply grieved ; and he made known his grief to the Master, and won from him the promise that henceforth no son should be received into the Order without the leave of his father and mother. Now, after the King Suddhodana had attained the Fruit of the Third Path, the Blessed One, together with the company of Brethren, returned to Rajagaha, and took up his residence in the Slta Grove. But between Kapilavatthu and Rajagaha the Master halted for a short time at the Mango Grove of Anupiya. And while he was in that place a number of the Sakya princes determined to join his congregation, and to this end they followed him thither. The chief of jbhese princes were Anuruddha, Bhaddiva, Kimbila, Ananda, the 50 Yasodhara and Rahula. ( Ajanta fresco : Cave XVII, antechamber wall, left of shrine door. Sixth-seventh century A.D.) Yashodhara and RShula, the wife and son of the Buddha, shown in a detail from the wall painting of the Buddha's return to Kapilavastthu after his Enlighten- ment* Rock-cut Image of the Buddha. (Chinese, Long-men: Honan, Tang, seventh century. Rock-carving, limestone. Feng-Hsien Ssu, Cave U, West Wall.) Colossal Buddha figure, formerly covered in part by a grotto and a temple i.~,*i ** T?Ancr_H:ipn S<5. Both errotto and temple buildings are gone. The Conversion of Anathapindika Buddha's cousin, who was afterwards appointed personal attendant, and Devadatta, the Buddha's cousin, who was ever his enemy. Conversion of Anathapindika Now in these days there was a very wealthy merchant, by name Anathapindika, and he was residing at the house of a friend at Rajagaha, and the news reached him that a Blessed Buddha had arisen. Very early in the morning he went to the Teacher, and heard the Law, and was con- verted ; and he gave a great donation to the Order, and received a promise from the Master that he would visit Savatthi, the merchant's home. Then all along the road for the whole distance of forty-five leagues he built a resting-place at every league. And he bought the great Jetavana Grove at Savatthi for the price of as many pieces of gold as would cover the whole ground. In the midst thereof he built a pleasant chamber for the Master, and separate cells for the eighty Elders round about it, and many other residences with long halls and open roofs, and terraces to walk by night and day, and reservoirs of water. Then did he send a message to the Master that all was prepared. And the Master departed from Rajagaha, and in due course reached Savatthi. And the wealthy merchant, together with his wife and his son and two daughters in festal attire, and accompanied by a mighty train of followers, went out to meet him; while the Blessed One on his part entered the new-built monastery with all the infinite grace and peerless majesty of a Buddha, making the grove to shine with the glory of his person, as though it had been sprinkled with dust of gold. Then Anathapindika said to the Master: "What should I do with this monastery?' 5 and the Master answered: 5* Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism "Bestow it upon the Order, whether now present or to come." And the great Merchant, pouring water from a golden vessel into the Master's hands, confirmed the gift in these terms. And the Master received it and gave thanks and praised the uses of monasteries and the gift of them. The dedication festival lasted nine months. In those days there also resided at Savatthi, the chief town of Kosala, the lady Visakha, the wife of the wealthy merchant Punnavaddhana. She made herself the patroness and supporter of the Order, and was also the means of con- verting her father-in-law, who was previously an adherent of the naked Jainas; and for this reason she got the sur- name of the mother of Migara. Beyond this was her dedication to the Order of the monastery of Pubbarama, the value and splendour whereof were second only to those of the monastery erected by Anathapindika himself. The Buddha averts a War Now three rainy seasons were spent by the Lord in the Bambu Grove. It was in the fifth season, when he was residing in the Kutagara Hall of the Great Forest near to Vesali that there arose a dispute between the Sakyas and the Koliyas regarding the water of the river RohinI, which, because of a great drought, did not suffice that year to irrigate the fields on both banks. The quarrel rose high, and matters were come nearly to battle, when the Buddha pro- ceeded to the place, and took his seat on the river bank. He enquired for what reason the princes of the Sakyas and Koliyas were assembled, and when he was informed that they were met together for battle, he enquired what was the point in dispute. The princes said that they did not know of a surety, and they made enquiry of the commander- in-chief, but he in turn knew not, and sought information 52 The Admission of Women from the regent ; and so the enquiry went on until it reached the husbandmen, who related the whole affair. "What then is the value of water?" said the Buddha. "It is but little," said the princes. "And what of earth?" " That also is little," they said. " And what of princes ? " " It cannot be measured," they said. "Then would you," said the Buddha, "destroy that which is of the highest value for the sake of that which is little worth?" and he appeased the wrath of the combatants by the recital of sundry Jatakas. The princes now reflected that by the interposition of Buddha much bloodshed had been avoided, and that had it not been so, none might have been left to report the matter to their wives and children. And since, had he become, as he might if he had so pleased, a uni- versal monarch, they would have been his vassals, they chose two hundred and fifty of their number, from each party, to become his attendants, and join the Order. But these five hundred were ordained at the wish of their parents, and not by their own will, and their wives were filled with grief for their sake. The Admission of Women About this time Suddhodana fell ill with a mortal sick- ness, and as soon as this was reported to the Blessed One, he proceeded to Kapilavatthu and visited his father. And when he had come before him, he preached to him the instability of all things, so that Suddhodana attained to the Fruit of the Fourth Path; to Arahatta, and Nibbana, and thereafter he died. After the death of her husband the widowed queen, the Matron Gautaml, decided to adopt the life of the hermitage, cut off her hair, and proceeded to the place where the Buddha was residing. She was accompanied by the wives 53 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism of the five hundred princes who had been ordained on the occasion of the imminent battle at the Rohinl river; for these considered that it was better for them to retire from the world, than to remain at home in widowhood. The Matron Gautami said to the Buddha that as Suddhodana was now dead, and Rahula and Nanda were both ordained Brethren, she had no wish to reside alone, and she asked that she might be admitted to the Order, together with the princesses who were with her. But this request the Buddha refused, a first, a second, and third time, for he reflected that if they were admitted, it would perplex the minds of many who had not yet entered the Paths, and would be the occasion of evil speaking against the Order. And when they were still refused, the women feared to ask a fourth time, and they returned to their homes. And the Buddha returned to the Kutagara hall, near Vesali. Then the Matron Gautami said to the other princesses : My children, the Buddha has thrice refused us admission to the Order, but now let us take it upon ourselves to go to him where he now is, and he will not be able to deny us." They all cut their hair, adopted the garb of religieuses, and taking earthen alms-bowls, set out for Vesali on foot; for they considered that it was contrary to the discipline for a recluse to travel by car. Then they who in all their life had walked only on smooth pavements, and regarded it as a great matter to ascend or descend from one story of their palaces to another, trod the dusty roads, and it was not until evening that they reached thejplace where the Buddha was. They were received by Ananda. And when he saw them, their feet bleeding and covered with dust, as if half dead, his breast was filled with pity and his eyes with tears, and he 54 The Admission of Women enquired the meaning of their journey. When this was made known he informed the Master, describing all that he had seen. But the Buddha merely said: "Enough, Ananda, do not ask me that women retire from the house- hold life to the homeless life, under the Doctrine and Discipline of Him-who-has-thus-attained." And he said this three times. But Ananda besought the Blessed One in another way to receive the women into the homeless life. He asked the Blessed One : " Are women competent, Reverend Sire, if they retire from the household to the homeless life, to attain to the Fruits of the First, the Second, the Third, and the Fourth Paths, even to Arahatta? " The Buddha could not deny the competence of women. "Are Buddhas," he asked, "born into the world only for the benefit of men ? Assuredly it is for the benefit of women also." And the Blessed One consented that women should make profession and enter the Order, subject to the conditions of the Eight Duties of Subordination to the Brethren. " But," he added, " if women were not admitted to the Order, then would the Good Law endure for a thousand years, but now it will stand for five hundred years only. For just as when mildew falls upon a field of flourishing rice, that field of rice does not long endure, just so when women retire from the household to the homeless life under a Doctrine and Discipline, the Norm will not long endure. And just as a large reservoir is strengthened by a strong dyke, so have I established a barrier of eight weighty regu- lations, not to be transgressed as long as life shall last." And in this way the Matron GautamI and the five hundred princesses were admitted to the order; and it was not long before Gautami attained to Arahatta, and the five hundred princesses attained the Fruit of the First Path, 55 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism And this took place in the sixth year of the Enlighten- ment. The Sixth to the Fourteenth Years The sixth rainy season was spent at Savatthi, and there- after the Blessed One repaired to Rajagaha. Now the name of king Bimbisara's wife was Khema, 1 and such was her pride in her beauty that she had never deigned to visit the Master: but on a certain occasion the king brought about a meeting by means of a stratagem. Then the Buddha performed a miracle for her; he produced a likeness of one of the beautiful nymphs of Indra's heaven, and while she beheld it, he made it pass through all the stages of youth, middle age, old age, and death. And by this terrible sight the Queen was .disposed to hear the Master's teaching, and she entered the First Path, and afterwards attained to Arahatta. During the Master's residence in Rajagaha a wealthy merchant of that place became possessed of a piece of sandal wood, and he had a bowl made of it. This bowl he fastened to the tip of a tall bamboo, and raising it up in this way, he announced: "If any Wanderer or Brahman be possessed of miraculous powers, let him take down the bowl/' Then Moggallana and other of the Brethren egged each other to take it down, and that other by name Pindola-Bharadvaja, rose up into the sky and took the bowl, and moved three times round the city ere he descended, to the astonishment of all the citizens. When this was reported to the Buddha, he remarked: " This will not conduce to the conversion of the uncon- verted, nor to the advantage of the converted." And 1 For other mention of the Bhikkhum Khema, see p. 223. 56 The Sixth to the Fourteenth Years he prohibited the Brethren from making an exhibition of miraculous powers. The Buddha met with opposition to his teaching, par- ticularly from six heretical teachers, each of whom had a large train of adherents. Of these heretical teachers one was Sanjaya, the former master of Sariputta and Moggallana, and another was Nigantha Nataputta, who is better known as Vardhamana, the leader of the sect of the Jainas, whose history in many respects recalls that of Buddhism, while, unlike Buddhism, it still numbers many adherents in India proper. These various teachers failed to find any support in the realm of Bimbisara, and there- fore betook themselves to Savatthi, hoping to secure greater influence with King Prasenajit. Now Savatthi was the place were all former Buddhas have exhibited their greatest miracle, and remembering this the Buddha proceeded thither with the intention of confounding his opponents. He took up his residence in the Jetavana monastery. Very soon afterwards he exhibited to the people, the six teachers, and King Prasenajit, a series of great miracles, creating a great road across the sky from East to West, and walking thereon the while he preached the Good Law. By these means the heretical teachers were overcome. Following upon the Great Miracle, the Buddha departed to the Heaven of the Thirty-three, and there preached the Law to his mother, Maha Maya. The Buddha remained in the Heaven of the Thirty-three for three months, and during that time he created a likeness of himself, that continued the teaching of the Law on earth, and went every day upon his rounds begging food. When the Buddha was about to descend from heaven, Sakka commanded Vissakamma, the divine architect, to create a triple 57 Buddha &f the Gospel of Buddhism ladder, the foot of which was set down near the town of Sankissa. And the Buddha descended at this place, attended by Brahma on the right and Sakka on the left. From Sankissa the Master returned to the Jetavana monastery near Savatthi. Here the heretical teachers induced a young woman of the name of Cinca so to act as to arouse the suspicion of the people regarding her relation to the Master. After many visits to the monastery, she contrived a means to assume the appear- ance of a woman far gone in pregnancy, and in the ninth month she brought an open accusation, and required that the Master should provide a place for her confinement. The Buddha answered with a great voice, " Sister, whether thy words be true or false, none knoweth save thou and I." At that very moment the strings gave way, wherewith the woman had bound upon herself the wooden globe by means of which she had assumed the appearance of pregnancy. Pursued by the indignant people, she dis- appeared in the midst of flames rising from the earth, and .descended to the bottom of the lowest Purgatory. The ninth retreat was spent in the Ghositarama at Kausambi. Here there arose violent disagreements among the Brethren on matters of discipline, and the Buddha's wisdom and kindness availed not to restore peace. He therefore left the Brethren and proceeded to the village of Balakalonakara with the intention of residing alone as a hermit. He met on the way Anuruddha, Nandiya and Kimbila, who were living in perfect unity and content, and he rejoiced their hearts by a religious discourse* Then proceeding to the Rakkhita Grove at Parileyyaka, he dwelt alone. After residing for some time at Parileyyaka, the Lord proceeded to Savatthi. Now the contumacious Brethren 58 The Sixth to the Fourteenth Years of Kausambi had received such signal marks of disrespect from the laity of that city that they resolved to proceed to Savatthi and lay the matter in dispute before the Master, and they abode by his decision, and peace was restored. During the eleventh retreat the Master resided at Rajagaha. There he saw one day a Brahman, by name Bharadvaja, superintending the cultivation of his fields. The Brahman, seeing the Buddha subsisting upon the alms of others, said : " O Wanderer, I plough and sow, and so find my livelihood. Do thou also plough and sow to the same end?" But the Buddha replied: "I, too, plough and sow, and it is thus that I find my food." The Brahman was surprised, and said : " I do not see, O reverend Gautama, that you have a yoke, ploughshare, goad, or bullocks. How, then, say that thou too labourest?" Then the Lord said: "Faith is the seed I sow; devotion is the rain; modesty is the ploughshaft; the mind is the tie of the yoke ; mindfulnessis my plough- share and goad. Energy is my team and bullock, leading to safety, and proceeding without backsliding to the place where there is no sorrow." And Bharadvaja was so much affected by this parable that he was converted and made confession and was admitted to the Order. In the thirteenth year, during his stay at Kapilavatthu, the Buddha was subjected to violent insults on the part of his father-in-law, Suprabuddha, and he uttered the pre- diction that within a week Suprabuddha would be swallowed alive by the earth. And, notwithstanding Suprabuddha spent the whole week in the tower of his palace, the earth opened and he was swallowed up in accordance with the prophecy, and he sank into the lowest Purgatory. The Lord returned from Kapilavatthu to the Jetavana monastery at Savatthi and thence proceeded to Alavi, a 59 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism place that was haunted by a man-eating ogre who was accus- tomed to devour the children of the place day after day. When the Buddha appeared before him, he was received with threats, but the Master, by gentleness and patience, succeeded in softening his heart, and was able also to answer the questions propounded by the ogre, who became a believer and mended his life. The fierce robber Angu- limala, too, he won over to the Good Law, and notwith- standing his evil life he quickly attained to Arahatta. About this time the pious Anathapindika gave his daughter in marriage to the son of a friend residing in Anga, and as the Anga family were supporters of the heretical teacher Nigantha, he gave his daughter a train of maidservants to support her in the right faith. The young wife refused to do honour to the naked Jaina ascetics, and she awakened an eager desire in the heart of her mother-in-law to hear the preaching of the Master: and when he arrived the whole family together with many others were converted. Leaving the completion of the work of conversion to Anuruddha, the Buddha returned to Savatthi. The Buddhds Daily Life In this way there passed by year after year of the Buddha's wandering ministry, but the events of the middle years cannot be chronologically arranged with exactitude; it will suffice if we give a general description of the Master's daily life at this time. 1 " From year to year the change from a period of wandering to a period of rest and retirement repeated itself for Buddha and his disciples. In the month of June when, after the 1 What follows is quoted from the admirable summary of Oldenberg. Buddha % English translation by W. Hoey. 60 The Buddha's Daily Life dry, scorching heat of the Indian summer, clouds come up in towering masses, and the rolling thunders herald the approach of the rain-bearing monsoon, the Indian to-day, as in ages past, prepares himself and his home for the time during which all usual operations are interrupted by the rain: for whole weeks long in many places the pouring torrents confine the inhabitants to their huts, or at any rate, to their villages, while communication with neighbours is cut off by rapid, swollen streams, and by inundations. 'The birds,' says an ancient Buddhist work, * build their nests on the tops of trees : and there they nestle and hide during the damp season. 5 And thus also, it was an established practice with the members of monastic orders, undoubtedly not first in Buddha's time, but since ever there was a system of religious itinerancy in India, to suspend itinerant operations during the three rainy months and to spend this time in quiet retirement in the neighbourhood of towns and villages, where sure support was to be found through the charity of believers. . . . Buddha also every year for three months * kept vassa, rainy season/ surrounded by groups of his disciples, who flocked together to pass the rainy season near their teacher. Kings and wealthy men contended for the honour of entertaining him and his disciples, who were with him, as guests during this season in the hospices and gardens which they had provided for the community. The rains being over, the itinerating began: Buddha went from town to town and village to village, always attended by a great concourse of disciples : the texts are wont to speak in one place of three hundred, and in another of five hundred, who followed their master. In the main streets, through which the religious pilgrims, like travelling merchants, used to pass, the believers who 61 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism dwelt near had taken care to provide shelter, to which Buddha and his disciples might resort : or, where monks who professed the doctrine dwelt, there was sure to be found lodging for the night in their abodes, and even if no other cover was to be had, there was no want of mango or banyan trees, at the feet of which the band might halt for the night. . . . "The most important headquarters during these wan- derings, at the same time the approximately extreme points, to the north-west and south-east of the area, in which Buddha's pilgrim life was passed, are the capital cities of the kings of Kosala and Magadha, Savatthi, now Sahet Maheth on the Rapti, and Rajagaha, now Rajgir, south of Bihar. In the immediate neighbourhood of these towns the com- munity possessed numerous pleasant gardens, in which structures of various kinds were erected for the require- ments of the members. * Not too far from, nor yet too near the town,' thus runs the standard description of such a park given in the sacred texts, 'well provided with entrances and exits, easily accessible to all people who enquire after it, with not too much of the bustle of life by day, quiet by night, far from commotion and the crowds of men, a place of retirement, a good place for solitary meditation/ Such a garden was the Veluvana, * Bambu Grove/ once a pleasure-ground of King Bimbisara, and presented by him to Buddha and the Church : another was the still more renowned Jetavana at Savatthi, a gift made by Buddha's most liberal admirer, the great merchant Anathapindika. Not alone the sacred texts, but equally also the monumental records, the reliefs of the great Stupa of Bharhut, recently explored, show how highly celebrated this gift of Anathapindika's was from the earliest days in the Buddhist Church. . . . If it is possible to speak of a 62 The Buddha's Daily Life home in the homeless wandering life of Buddha and his disciples, places like the Veluvana and Jetavana may of all others be so called, near the great centres of Indian life and yet untouched by the turmoil of the capitals, once the quiet resting-places of rulers and nobles, before the yellow-robed mendicants appeared on the scene, and 'the Church in the four quarters, present and absent/ succeeded to the possession of the kingly inheritance. In these gardens were the residences of the brethren, houses, halls, cloisters, storerooms, surrounded by lotus-pools, fragrant mango trees, and slender fan-palms that lift their foliage high over all else, and by the deep green foliage of the Nyagrodha tree, whose roots dropping from the air to earth become new stems, and with their cool shady arcades and leafy walks seem to invite to peaceful meditation. "These were the surroundings in which Buddha passed a great part of his life, probably the portions of it richest in effective work. Here masses of the population, lay as well as monastic, flocked together to see him, and to hear him preach. Hither came pilgrim monks from far countries, who had heard the fame of Buddha's teaching, and, when the rainy season was past, undertook a pilgrim- age to see the Master face to face. . . . " The fame of Buddha's person also drew together from far and near crowds of such as stood without the narrower circles of the community. *To the ascetic Gotama,' people remarked to one another, 'folks are coming, passing through kingdoms and countries, to converse with him/ Often, when he happened to halt near the residences of potentates, kings, princes, and dignitaries came on wagons or on elephants to put questions to him or to hear his doctrine. Such a scene is described to us in the opening of the * Sutra on the fruit of asceticism,' and reappears in 63 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism pictorial representation among the reliefs at Bharhut. The Sutra relates how King Ajatasattu of Magadha in the ' Lotus-night ' that is, in the full moon of October, the time when the lotus blooms is sitting in the open air, surrounded by his nobles on the flat roof of his palace. 'Then,' as it is recorded in that text, the king of Magadha, Ajatasattu, the son of the Vaidehi princes, uttered this exclamation, 'Fair in sooth is this moonlight night, lovely in sooth is this moonlight night, grand in sooth is this moonlight night, happy omens in sooth giveth this moonlight night. What Samana x or what Brahman shall I go to hear, that my soul may be cheered when I hear him ? f " One counseller names this and another that teacher : but Jlvaka, the king's physician, sits on in silence. Then the king of Magadha, Ajatasattu, the sun of Vodehai, spake to Jlvaka Komarabhacca : "Why art thou silent, friend Jlvaka?" ''Sire, in my mango grove he resteth, the exalted, holy, supreme Buddha, with a great band of disciples, with three hundred monks ; of him, the exalted Gotama, there spreadeth through the world lordly praise in these terms : He, the exalted one, is the holy, supreme Buddha, the wise, the learned, the blessed, who knoweth the universe, the highest, who tameth man like an ox, the teacher of gods and men, the exalted Buddha. Sire, go to hear him, the exalted one : perchance, if thou seest him, the exalted one, thy soul, sire, may be refreshed " and the king orders elephants to be prepared for himself and the queens, and the royal procession moves with burning torches on that moonlight night through the gate of Rajagaha to Jlvaka's mango grove, where Buddha is said to have held with the king the famous discourse, *On the fruits of asceticism, 5 at 1 A begging friar, Bhikkhu. The Buddha's Daily Life the end of which the king joined the Church as a lay- member. . . . " A frequent end of these dialogues is, of course, that the vanquished opponents or the partisans of Buddha invite him and his disciples to dine on the following day. The Buddha Teaching in the House of a Layman (Ajanta Frescoes, after Griffiths) * Sir, may it please the Exalted One and his disciples to dine with me to-morrow. 5 And Buddha permits his con- sent to be inferred from his silence. On the following day, about noon, when dinner is ready, the host sends word to Buddha: 'Sire, it is time, the dinner is ready'; and Buddha takes his cloak and alms-bowl and goes 65 Buddha &P the Gospel of Buddhism with his disciples into the town or village to the residence of his host. After dinner ... at which the host himself and his family serve the guests, when the customary hand-washing is over, the host takes his place with his family at Buddha's side, and Buddha addresses to them a word of spiritual admonition and instruction. " If the day be not filled by an invitation, Buddha, accord- ing to monastic usages, undertakes his circuit of the village or town in quest of alms. He, as well as his disciples, rises early, when the light of dawn appears in the sky, and spends the early moments in spiritual exer- cises or in converse with his disciples, and then he proceeds with his companions towards the town. In the days when his reputation stood at its highest point and his name was named throughout India among the fore- most names, one might day by day see that man before whom kings bowed themselves, walking about, alms-bowl in hand, through streets and alleys, from house to house, and without uttering any request, with downcast look, stand silently waiting until a morsel of food was thrown into his bowl. " When he had returned from his begging excursion and had eaten his repast, there followed, as the Indian climate demanded, a time, if not of sleep, at any rate of peaceful retirement. Resting in a quiet chamber or, better still, in the cool shades of dense foliage, he passed the sultry close hours of the afternoon in solitary contemplation until the evening came on and drew him once more from holy silence .to the bustling concourse of friend and foe." The Appointment of Ananda, During the first twenty years of the Buddha's life, his personal attendants were not such permanently. The 66 Standing Image of the Buddha attended by two monks and two Bodhisattvas. (Chinese, Period of the Six Dynasties, East Wei, from Honan Votive Stele dated 543 A.D. Carved Grey limestone, 4'6" high. Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, Boston.) Sakyamuni Buddha standing on a lotus-ground, right hand (partly missing) in abhaya mudra, left hand (also damaged) , in vara mudrS. On either side of the Buddha, two monks, Ananda and Kassapa, their heads shaved, their hands in their sleeves (the one a youth, the other an aged man), stand on their individual small lotus pedestals. To the left and right of the monks stand two Bodhisattvas, Avalokitesvara with the flask of ambrosia in his hand, the other figure unidenti- fied. They stand on lotus-grounds which stem from two dragons (nSgas). Between the dragons is the expanded lotus-flower (established in the Waters) which is the Buddha's prthivi (platform of existence). This lotus (or Space) is mounted on an inverted lotus that is flanked by what remains of two recum- bent lions. The whole background and the Buddha's halo are covered with winding lotus stems and flowers. The square plinth on which this universe is represented bears the Inscribed names of the donors, and these are enclosed by two flat relief Vajrapanis. The Appointment of Ananda Brethren took it by turns to carry the Master's bowl and cloak, and he did not favour one more than another. But one day he addressed the Brethren and said : " O Bhikkhus, I am now advanced in years :* and some Bhikkhus, when they have been told * Let us go this way,* take another way, and some drop my bowl and cloak on the ground. Do ye know of a Bhikkhu to be my permanent body- servant ? " Then the venerable Sariputta arose and said : " I Lord, will wait upon thee." Him the Exalted One rejected, and Moggallana the Great, also. Then all of the foremost disciples said: "We will wait upon thee." Only Ananda remained silent : for he thought "The Master himself will say of whom he_approves." Then the Exalted One said : " O Bhikkhus, Ananda is not to be urged by others :_ if he knows it of himself, he will wait upon me." Then Ananda stood up and said: "If, Lord, thou wilt refuse me four things, and grant me four things, then I will wait on thee." Now the four things that Ananda wished to be denied were special favours, for he did not wish it to be said that his service was undertaken for the sake of clothes, or good fare, or lodging, or that he might be included in invitations. And the four boons that he desired were that the Buddha would accept any invitation received through Ananda, that he would be easy of access to such as Ananda should bring to speak with_him and to Ananda himself, and that he would repeat to Ananda such doctrines as he desired to hear again : for Ananda did not wish it to be thought that the Buddha made no account of him, nor that men should say that the Buddha's im- mediate attendant was not well versed in the doctrine. All these boons were granted by the Blesssed One, and thence* forward until the day of his death, Ananda remained the 1 The Buddha was at this time fifty-six years of age. Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism permanent attendant of the Buddha. 1 It was not, however, until after the Buddha's death that Ananda attained to Arahatta. The Enmity of Devadatta In the picture of Buddha's daily life described a few pages previously, mention is made of Ajatasattu, King of Magadha. This Ajatasattu was the son of Bimbisara, the chief of the Buddha's royal supporters. When Ajatasattu was conceived, it was indicated by an omen and a prophecy that he would be the slayer of his father. And this came to pass at the instigation of Devadatta, One day when the Buddha was teaching in the Bambu Grove, Devadatta proposed that because of the Master's advanced age, the leadership of the Congregation should be vested in himself. From the time when this suggestion was plainly refused, Devadatta's enmity and ill-will greatly increased. Because of what had taken place the Buddha issued a decree against Devadatta as a renegade whose words were not to be recognized as proceeding from the Buddha, the Law, or the Community. The angry Devadatta now betook himself to Ajatasattu, King Bimbisara's son and heir, and persuaded him to murder his father and usurp the throne, while Devadatta should kill the Master and become Buddha. Bimbisara however discovered his son's intention, and so far from punishing him in any way, abdicated the throne and gave over the kingdom to his son. Nevertheless, upon Devadatta's representing that Bimbisara might desire to recover the throne, Ajatasattu brought about his death by starvation. 1 Personal service on the Buddha implied to bring his water and tooth- twig, wash his feet, accompany him abroad, bear his bowl and cloak, sweep his cell, and act as chamberlain. 68 The Quelling of Nalagiri. (Railing medallion from Amaravafi, second century A.D. 85 cm. high : 2'9^". Government Museum, Madras.) This represents one of the famous Jatakas or "birth stories" of the Buddha. Nalagiri, the elephant Devadatta tries to use to kill the Buddha, is overcome. To the right he is seen kneeling in submission and reverence to the Buddha. The Enmity of Devadatta Then Devadatta secured the new king's consent to the murder of the Buddha, and he hired thirty-one men to carry out his purpose. All these men, however, not- withstanding they were notorious criminals, were so affected by the majesty and loving kindness of the Master, that they could not raise hand against him, but on the con- trary, experienced conversion, and joined the Community. Devadatta was now convinced that the Buddha could not be slain by any human being, and determined to let loose upon him the fierce elephant Nalagiri. This beast was accustomed to drink eight measures of spirituous liquor every day, but Devadatta commanded the keeper to give it sixteen measures the next day, and to let it loose against the Buddha as he proceeded through the streets. The Buddha was informed of what was to be done, but he refused to change his usual procedure, and he entered the city at the usual hour, accompanied by a company of Bhikkhus. Soon afterwards the elephant was let loose upon him, and at once it raged through the streets, working havoc. The Bhikkhus entreated the Master to escape, but as he would not, they sought to walk before him, in order that he might not be the first to meet the savage beast, but this the Buddha forbade, albeit in the case of Ananda, his doing so was only prevented by the exercise of miraculous power. At this moment the elephant was about to destroy the mother of a child who had run into the street in ignorance of the danger : but the Buddha called to it : " It was not intended that you should destroy any other being than myself: here am I: waste not your strength on any less noble object." On hearing the voice of Buddha, the elephant looked towards him; and immediately the effects of the liquor passed away, and the elephant approached him in 69 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism the gentlest fashion and kneeled before him. The Master charged him to take no life in future, but to be kind to all people: and the elephant repeated the five pre- cepts before the assembled crowds. Thus the rage of Nalagiri was subdued, and had he not been a quadruped, he might have entered the First Path. 1 As Buddha had thus performed a miracle, he reflected that it would not be becoming to seek alms in the same place, and he therefore returned to the Jetavana monastery, without proceeding on his usual course. Following upon this, Devadatta attempted to create a schism in the Order. Together with certain other Bhikkhus he requested the Buddha to establish a more severely ascetic rule for the Brethren, as that they should clothe themselves only in cast-off rags, that they should dwell as forest-hermits, accept no invitations, and abstain from fish and meat. The Master refused to concede these demands, declaring that those who wished might adopt this more severe rule, but that he would not make it binding upon all. Devadatta, who expected this refusal, made it the occasion of division within the Order. Together with a party of five hundred recently ordained Brethren, he made his way to Gaya Scarp. But as he was preaching there, he happened to see Sariputta and Moggallana in the audience, and thinking them to be of his party, he requested Sariputta to preach, while he himself slept. Sariputta and Mogallana now addressed the assembly and persuaded the five hundred schismatics to return to the Master. When Devadatta awoke and learnt what had taken place, the hot blood broke from his mouth in anger. Devadatta lay sick for nine months : and at the end of this time he determined 1 Animals may keep the precepts, gods may enter the Paths, but only human beings can attain to Arahatta and Nibbana. 70 Destruction of the Sakyas to seek the Buddha's forgiveness, for he knew that the Master felt no ill-will toward him. His disciples en- deavoured to dissuade him, knowing that the Buddha would not see him: but he had himself conveyed in a palanquin to the Jetavana monastery. The Bhikkhus informed Buddha of his approach, but the Master answered: "He will not see the Buddha: for his crimes are so great that ten, or a hundred, or even a thousand Buddhas could not help him." When they reached the monastery, the disciples of Devadatta laid down the palanquin : and then, despite his weakness, Devadatta rose and stood. But no sooner did his feet touch the ground, than flames arose from the lowest hell, and wrapped him in their folds, at first his feet, then his middle, and then his shoulders. Then in terror he cried aloud : "Save me, my children, I am the cousin of the Buddha. O Buddha, though I have done so much against thee, for the sake of our kinship save me ! " And he repeated the formula of taking refuge in the Buddha, the Norm, and the order. By this he received the help of the Three Gems at last, and in a future birth he will become the Private Buddha Sattisara, notwithstanding he now went to hell and received a body of fire. Now King Ajatasattu, who had mufdered his father, felt the pangs of conscience. He found no comfort in the doctrines of the six heretical teachers who were the Lord's opponents. And then, on the advice of his physician Jivaka as related previously he sought the Buddha himself, and heard his teaching and became a convert to the true faith. Destruction of the Sakyas Not long after this, in the seventh year of Ajatasattu's reign, the son of the king of Kosala dethroned his father 7* Buddha ftF the Gospel of Buddhism and, to revenge himself for a slight received, he marched on Kapilavatthu. Almost the whole of the Sakya clan was destroyed in the ensuing war, while the party of the Kosalas perished in a great flood. When the Lord had reached his seventy-ninth year being the forty-fifth year following the Enlightenment Ajatasattu undertook an unsuccessful war upon the Vajjians of Vesali. The Buddha was consulted upon the likelihood of victory, and in this connection we are in- formed what is the Master's view of polity, for he declares that he himself has taught the Vajjians the conditions of true welfare, and as he is informed that the Vajjians are continuing to observe these institutions, he foretells that they will not suffer defeat. And these con- ditions are stated in the following terms: "So long, Ananda, as the Vajjians meet together in concord, and rise in concord, and carry out their undertakings in con- cord so long as they enact nothing already established, abrogate nothing that has been already enacted, and act in accordance with the ancient institutions of the Vajjians, as established in former days so long as they honour and esteem and revere the Vajjian elders, and hold it a point of duty to hearken to their words so long as no women or girls belonging to their clans are detained among them by force or abduction so long as they honour and esteem and revere and support the Vajjian shrines in town or country, and allow not the proper offerings and rites, as formerly given and performed, to fall into desuetude so long as the rightful protection, defence, and support shall be fully provided for the Arahats amongst them, so that Arahats from a distance may enter the realm, and the Arahats therein may live at ease so long may the Vajjians be expected not to decline, but to prosper," 72 Destruction of the Sakyas Following upon this pronouncement the Master in like manner assembled the Brethren, and set forth forty-one con- ditions of welfare of a religious Order, of which conditions several relating to concord and to the observance and main- tenance of existing regulations and obedience and respect to elders are identical with those which are given for the secular society. Amongst others we may note the following : " So long, O Bhikkhus ... as the Brethren delight in a life of solitude . . . shall not engage in, be fond of, or be connected with business . . . shall not stop on their way to Nibbana because they have attained to any lesser thing . . . shall exercise themselves in mental activity, search after truth, energy, joy, peace, earnest contemplation, and equanimity of mind . . . shall exercise themselves in the realization of the ideas of the impermanency of all phenomena, bodily or mental, the absence of every soul . . . shall live among the Arahats in the practice, both in public and in private, of those virtues which are pro- ductive of freedom and praised by the wise, and are untarnished by desire of a future life or the faith in the efficacy of outward acts . . . shall live among the Arahats, cherishing, both in public and private, that noble and saving insight which leads to the complete destruction of the sorrow of him who acts according to it so long may the Brethren be expected not to decline, but to prosper/* And at Rajagaha, on the Vulture's Peak, the Master taught the Brethren, and again at Nalanda in the same manner. "Such and such is upright conduct; such and such is earnest contemplation ; such and such is intelli- gence. 1 Great becomes the fruit, great the advantage of 1 Slid) samadhi) and fanna> something like the * works,' ' faith,' and c reason ' of Christianity. The formula above quoted appears repeatedly as a familiar summary of the Buddha's discourse. 73 Buddha ^f the Gospel of Buddhism earnest contemplation, when it is set round with upright conduct. Great becomes the fruit, great the advantage of intellect, when it is set round with earnest contempla- tion. The mind, set round with intelligence, is set quite free from the Intoxications, that is to say, from the In- toxication of Sensuality, from the Intoxication of Becoming, from the Intoxication of Delusion, from the Intoxication of Ignorance. 5 * The gift of a garden by Ambapali Then the Master proceeded to Vesall. At this time, also, there was dwelling in the town of Vesall a beautiful and wealthy courtesan whose name was Ambapali, the Mango- girl. It was reported to her that the Blessed One had come to Vesali and was halting at her Mango Grove. Immediately she ordered her carriages and set out for the grove, attended by all her train; and as soon as she reached the place where the Blessed One was, she went up toward him on foot, and stood respectfully aside; and the Blessed One instructed and gladdened her with religious discourse. And she, being thus instructed and gladdened, addressed the Blessed One and said : " May the Master do me the honour to take his meal with all the Brethren at my house to-morrow." And the Blessed One gave consent by silence. Ambapali bowed down before him and went her way. 1 Now the Licchavi princes of Vesall also came to know that the Blessed One had come to the town, and they too proceeded to the Mango Grove where he was halting. 1 The picture of the wealthy and truly pious courtesan, c gladdened by religious discourse/ remains true to Indian life in old-fashioned cities even at the present day. The whole episode exhibits a beautiful tolerance, recalling the like stories of the Christian Magdalene. For Ambapalfs * Psalm,' see p. 285 seq, 74 The last Retreat And as they went they met with Ambapali returning, and she drove up against them axle to axle, and wheel to wheel, so that they all exclaimed: "How comes it, Ambapali, that thou drivest up against us thus ? " " My Lords," she made answer, "I have just invited the Blessed One and his Brethren for their to-morrow's meal." Then the princes replied : " O, Ambapali, give up this meal to us for the sum of a hundred thousand." " My Lords/ 5 she said, " if you were to offer to me all Vesali with its subject territory, I would not give up so honour- able a feast." Then the Licchavis cast up their hands and exclaimed : " We are outdone by the Mango-girl ! " and they went on their way to the Mango Grove. And when they, too, had greeted the Blessed One and had hearkened to his instruction, they addressed the Master and said: "May the Blessed One do us the honour to take his meal, with all the Brethren, at our house to-morrow." But the Buddha replied: "O, Licchavis, I have promised to dine to-morrow with Ambapali the courtesan." And again the princes exclaimed : " We are outdone by the Mango-girl ! " The next day Ambapali served the Lord and all the Brethren with her own hands, and when they would eat no more she called for a low stool and sat down beside the Master and said : " Lord, I make a gift of this mansion to the Order of which thou art the chief." And the Blessed One accepted the gift ; and after instructing and gladdening Ambapali with religious discourse, he rose from his seat and went his way. The last Retreat From Vesali the Master went to the neighbouring village of Beluva, where he spent the last Retreat. There a severe 75 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism sickness came upon him. But the Exalted One, considering that his time was not yet come, and that it was not right that he should pass away without taking leave of the Order, "by a great effort of the will bent that sickness down again, and kept his hold on life till the time he fixed upon should come : and the sickness abated upon him." Now when he had quite recovered, he came out from his lodging, and sat down upon a seat, and there Ananda came to him and saluted him and said : " I have beheld, Lord, how the Exalted One was in health, and I have beheld how the Exalted One had to suffer. And though at the sight of the sickness of the Exalted One my body became weak as a creeper, and the horizon became dim to me, and my faculties were no longer clear, yet notwith- standing I took some little comfort from the thought that the Exalted One would not pass away until at least he had left instructions as touching the Order," " What then, Ananda," said the Buddha, "does the Order expect that of me? I have preached the truth without making any distinction between exoteric and esoteric doctrine; for in respect of the truths, Ananda, He-who- has-thus-attained has no such thing as the closed fist of a teacher, who keeps some things back. Surely, Ananda, should there be anyone who harbours the thought, * It is I svho will lead the brotherhood, 5 or 'the Order is depen- dent upon me, 9 it is he who should lay down instructions in any matter concerning the Order. Now He-who-has- :hus-attained, Ananda, thinks not that it is he who should ead the brotherhood, or that the Order is dependent upon lim. Why then should he leave instructions in any natter concerning the Order? I too, O Ananda, am now jrown old, and full of years, my journey is drawing to its :lose, I have reached my sum of days, I am turning eighty 76 The last Retre t years of age; and just as a worn-out cart, Ananda, can be kept going only with the help of thongs, so, methinks, the body of Him-who-has-thus-attained can only be kept going by bandaging it up. It is only, Ananda, when the Tathagata, by ceasing to attend to any outward thing, becomes plunged by the cessation of any separate sensation in that concentration of heart which is concerned with no material object it is only then that the body of Him-who- has-thus-attained is at ease. " Therefore, O Ananda, be ye lamps unto yourselves. Be ye a refuge to yourselves. Betake yourselves to no external refuge. Hold fast to the Truth as a lamp. Hold fast as a refuge to the Truth. Look not for refuge to anyone besides yourselves. . . . And whosoever, Ananda, either now or after I am dead, shall be a lamp unto themselves, shall betake themselves to no external refuge, but holding fast to the Truth as their lamp, and holding fast as their refuge to the Truth, shall look not for refuge to any- one besides themselves it is they, Ananda, among my Bhikkhus who shall reach the very topmost Height! but they must be anxious to learn." 1 Upon another occasion the Master walked with Ananda to the Cspala shrine: and he began to speak of his coming death. And when Ananda was grieved, and would have besought him to remain on earth, he said : " But now, Ananda, have I not formerly declared to you that it is in the very nature of all things, near and dear unto us, that we must divide ourselves from them, leave them, sever ourselves from them? How, then, Ananda, can this be possible whereas anything whatever born, 1 This noble passage I quote the translation of Professor Rhys Davids expresses with admirable literary art the pure individualism of Buddhist thought, here so nearly akin to that of Whitman and Nietzsche, 77 Buddha ^f the Gospel of Buddhism brought into being, and organized, contains within itself the inherent necessity of dissolution how then can this be possible that such a being should not be dissolved ? No such condition can exist 1 And, Ananda, that which has been relinquished, cast away, renounced, rejected, and abandoned by the Tathagata the remaining sum of life surrendered by him verily with regard to that, the word has gone forth from the Tathagata, saying: 'The passing away of Him-who-has-thus-attained shall take place before long. At the end of three months from this time the Tathagata will die ! ' That the Tathagata for the sake of living should repent him again of that saying this can no wise be I " Thereafter the Buddha set out with Ananda to go to the Kutagara Hall in the Great Forest. And being arrived there, the Brethren were assembled, and the Buddha exhorted them, and made public announcement of his coming death. " Behold, now, O Brethren, I exhort you, saying: 'All component things must grow old. Work out your salvation with diligence. The final extinction of the Tathagata will take place before long. At the end of three months from this time the Tathagata will die!'" The Last Meal Thereafter the Buddha proceeded to Pava, and he halted at the Mango Grove of Cunda, an hereditary smith. And when this was reported to Cunda he hastened to the grove; there the Buddha instructed and gladdened him with religious discourse. And he invited the Master and the Brethren to dine at his house on the morrow. Early in the morning Cunda the smith prepared sweet 78 Conversion of Pukkusa rice and cake and a dish of meat: l and he announced the hour to the Exalted One. And he, taking his bowl, proceeded to the house of Cunda the smith, and partook of the meal prepared, and afterward he instructed and gladdened Cunda the smith with religious discourse. But when the Exalted One had partaken of the meal prepared by Cunda the smith, there fell upon him a dire sickness, suffering and weakness came upon him, even unto death. But the Exalted One, mindful and self- possessed, bore it without complaint, and when he was a little relieved he said to Ananda: "Come, Ananda, let us go on to Kusinara." "Even so, lord/' said the venerable Ananda. Now the Exalted One turned aside from the path to the foot of a certain tree, and said to Ananda, " Fold, I pray you, Ananda, J:he robe in four, and spread it out for me. I am weary, Ananda, and must rest awhile." " Even so, lord," said the venerable Ananda. And when he was seated he asked for water, and Ananda brought it, from a neighbouring stream and he found the water of the stream was running clear, notwithstanding that a caravan of five hundred carts had just passed the ford. Conversion of Pukkusa Immediately after this there passed by a young man, by name Pukkusa, a disciple of Alara Kalama. And he related to the Buddha how upon a certain occasion this Alara Kalama had been sitting beside the road, and was so absorbed in meditation that five hundred carts passed him by, so nearly that even his robe was sprinkled with the dust : and a certain man was so much impressed by 1 Or perhaps truffles. But there is nothing contrary to Buddhist practice in eating flesh prepared and offered by others. 79 Buddha ^f the Gospel of Buddhism this profound abstraction that he became Alara's disciple. Upon hearing this story the Buddha replied by relating an occasion of even greater abstraction, on his own part, when, as he was walking to and fro upon a certain threshing-floor at Atuma, the rain fell and lightning flashed, and two peasants and four men were killed by a thunderbolt and yet though conscious and awake, he neither saw nor heard the storm : and upon that occasion in like manner a certain man was so much impressed by the Master's abstraction that he became a disciple. Upon hearing this relation, Pukkusa's faith in Alara Kalama faded away, and he resorted to the Exalted One, and to the Law and to the Brotherhood as his refuge, and requested the Exalted One to accept him as a lay disciple. And he sent for two robes of cloth of gold and presented them to the Master, and so went his way. But when Ananda folded the robes and the Master wore them, the golden cloth seemed to have lost its brightness and this was because whenever One-who-has-thus attained attains to Perfect Enlightenment, as also on the day when he passes away, the colour of his skin becomes exceeding bright. " And now," said the Master, "the utter passing away of Him-who-has-thus-attained, will take place at the third watch of this night in the Sala-grove of the Mallians. Come, Ananda, let us go on to the river Kakuttha." "Even so, lord!" said the venerable Ananda. The Exalted One went down into the water of u the river Kakuttha, and bathed and drank; and then, taking his seat upon the bank, he spoke with Ananda concerning Cunda the smith, that none should impute the least blame to him because the Master died after receiving the last meal at his hands. On the contrary, he said, there 80 *o g q 3 . 5,^a<8|7 ' ^g-g^Smt - g ^Hi, i *^ v ^ fi! flbfl? ' OT---ia> < iioi'uii> gli'Plff.Kil**^ &s.^fe-*s^rijfe:g5 w $ **!*... 8 a - hJ3 o ^'g-iips o to fli o a n!;^ The Master's Death are two offerings of food which are supremely precious that which is given immediately before One-who-has-thus- come attains to Perfect Insight, and the other before his utter passing away: and "there has been laid up to Cunda the smith a kamma redounding to length of life, good birth, good fortune and good fame, and to the inheritance of heaven and of sovereign power; and there- fore let not Cunda the smith feel any remorse." The Masters Death Then the Exalted One said to Ananda : " Come, Ananda, let us go on to the Sala-grove of the Mallas, on the further side of the river Hiranyavatl." And when they were_come there, he said: "Spread over for me, I pray you, Ananda, the couch with its head to the north, between the Twin Sala trees. I am weary, Ananda, and would lie down." " Even so, lord ! " said the venerable Ananda. And the Exalted One laid himself down on his right side, with one leg resting on the other; and he was mindful and self-possessed. And now there came to pass certain marvels, and the Master spoke of these to Ananda, and said : " The twin Sala trees are all one mass of bloom with flowers out of season ; all over the body of Him-who-has-thus-attained, these drop and sprinkle and scatter themselves, out of reverence for the successors of the Buddhas of old. And heavenly music sounds in the sky, out of reverence for the successors of the Buddhas of old. But it is not thus, Ananda, that He-who-has-thus-attained is rightly honoured, and reverenced. But the brother or the sister, the devout man or woman who continually fulfils all the greater and lesser duties, who is correct in life, walking according to the precepts it is he who rightly honours 81 Buddha ftf the Gospel of Buddhism and reverences the Tathagata. And therefore, Ananda, be ye constant in the fulfilment of the greater and the lesser duties, and be ye correct in life, walking according to the precepts; and thus, Ananda, should it be taught." Then the Buddha addressed Ananda, and said to him that he saw a great host of the gods assembled together to behold the Tathagata upon the night of his final passing away : and a host of spirits of the air and of the earth, "of worldly mind, who dishevel their hair and weep, who stretch forth their arms and weep, who fall prostrate on the ground, and roll to and fro in anguish at the thought 'Too soon will the Exalted One pass away! Too soon will the Exalted One die! Too soon will the Eye in the world pass away ! J " " But," the Master continued, "the spirits who are free from passion bear it calm and self-possessed, mindful of the saying * Impermanent, indeed, are all component things. 5 " And the Master made mention of four places that should be visited by the clansmen with feelings of reverence the place where the Tathagata was born, the place where he attained Supreme Enlightenment, the place where the kingdom of righteousness was established, and the place where the Tathagata utterly passed away: "and they, Ananda, who shall die while they, with believing heart, are journeying on such a pilgrimage, shall be reborn after death, when the body shall dissolve, in the happy realms of heaven." When Ananda enquired what should be done with the remains of jhe Tathagata, he answered : " Hinder not yourselves, Ananda, by honouring the remains of Him- who-has-thus-attained. Be zealous, I beseech you, Ananda, on your own behalf ! Devote yourselves to your own good ! 82 The Master's Death There are lay disciples who will do due honour to the remains of the Tathagata." Now Ananda had not yet attained to Arahatta, he was still a student, and he went away to the monastery, and stood leaning against the lintel of the door, weeping at the thought * Alas ! I remain still but a learner, one who has yet to work out his own perfection. And the Master is about to pass away he who is so kind ! ' Then the Exalted One summoned the Brethren and said, " Where now, brethren, is Ananda ?" and they answered: "The venerable Ananda, lord, has gone into the monastery, and is leaning against the lintel of the door, and weeping at the thought 'Alas! I remain still but a learner, one who has yet to work out his own perfection. And the Master is about to pass away he who is so kind ! * " Then the Exalted One called a certain Brother and sent him to Ananda with the messagej " Brother Ananda, the Master calls for thee." And Ananda came accordingly, and bowed before the Exalted One and took his seat respect- fully* Then the Exalted One said: "Enough, Ananda! do not let yourself be troubled ; do not weep ! Have I not already, on former occasions, told you that it is in the very nature of all things most near and dear unto us that we must divide ourselves from them, leave them, sever ourselves from them. How, then, Ananda, can this be possible whereas anything whatever born, brought into being, and organized, contains within itself the inherent necessity of dissolution how, then, can this be possible, that such a being should not be dissolved? No such condition can exist. For a long time, Ananda, you have been very near to me by acts of love, kind and good, that never varies, and is beyond all measure. You have done well, Ananda ! Be earnest in effort, and you too shall be 83 Buddha ^f the Gospel of Buddhism free from the Intoxications x>f Sensuality, of Individuality, Delusion and Ignorance." And he praised the able service of Ananda before the whole assembly. Then the Master said to Ananda: "Go now into the village of Kusinara, and inform the Mallas that the Tathagata is about to pass away, to the end that they may not afterwards reproach themselves by saying : ' In our own village the Tathagata died, and we took not the occasion to visit the Tathagata in his last hours/ " And the Mallas of Kusinara, with their young men and maidens and wives were grieved and saddened, and betook them- selves to the Sala Grove where the Buddha was lying. And Ananda presented them to the Master, family by family, in the first watch of the night. Now there was at this time a wanderer of the name of Subhadda, to whom the Buddha's approaching death was made known: and he desired to speak with the Master, for the dissipation of his doubt. To this end he approached Ananda : but he refused access to the Master, saying, " The Exalted One is weary, do not trouble him 1 " But the Exalted One overheard what was said, and desired that Subhadda should be given access : for he knew that the questions to be asked were sincere, and that Subhadda would understand the answers. And this was what Sub- hadda sought to know whether the leaders of other schools of thought, the masters of other congregations, such as Nigantha Nataputta, or Sanjaya the former teacher of Sariputta and MoggallSna, esteemed as good men by many, had, as they claimed, attained a true under- standing of things, or had some of them so attained, and not others ? And the Exalted One declared : " In whatso- ever doctrine and discipline, Subhadda, the Ariyan Eight- fold Path is not found, there is not found any man of true 84 The Master's Death sainthood, either of the first, the second, the third, or the fourth degree. But in that Doctrine and Discipline in which is found the Ariyan Eightfold Path, there are men of true sainthood, of all the four degrees. Void are the systems of other teachers void of true saints. But in this one, Subhadda, may the Brethren live the Perfect Life, that the world be not bereft of Arahats." And Subhadda's doubt being thus resolved, he resorted to the Exalted One, to the Law, and to the Congregation as his refuge, and he was received into the Order: and "ere long he attained to that supreme goal of the higher life (Nibbana), for the sake of which the clansmen go out from all and every household gain and comfort, to become houseless wanderers yea, that supreme goal did he, by himself, and while yet in this visible world, bring himself to the knowledge of, and continue to realize, and to see face to face 1 And he became conscious that birth was at an end, that the higher life had been fulfilled, that all that should be done had been accomplished, and that after this present life there would be no beyond." Thus it was that the venerable Subhadda became yet another among the Arahats ; and he was the last disciple whom the Exalted One himself converted. Now the Exalted One addressed the Brethren and said thrice, " It may be, Brethren, that there may be doubt or misgiving in the mind of some Brother as to the Buddha, or the doctrine, or the path, or the method. Inquire, Brethren, freely, Do not have to reproach yourselves afterwards with the thought : * our teacher was face to face with us, and we could not bring ourselves to inquire of the Exalted One when we were face to face with him. 5 " But none had any doubt or misgiving. And the vener- able Ananda said to the Exalted One : " How wonderful 85 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism a thing is it, lord, and how marvellous ! Verily I believe that in this whole assembly of the Brethren there is not one Brother who has any doubt or misgiving as to the Buddha, or the doctrine, or the path or the method ! " And the Buddha answered : ^ It is out of the fullness of faith that thou hast spoken, Ananda I But, Ananda, the Tathagata knows for certain that in his whole assembly of the Brethren there is not one Brother who has any doubt or misgiving as to the Buddha, or the doctrine, or the path, or the method ! For even the most backward, 1 Ananda, of all these five hundred brethren has become converted, is no longer liable to be born in a state of suffering, and is assured hereafter of attaining the Enlightenment of Arahatta." Then again, the Exalted One addressed the Brethren and said : " Decay is inherent in all component things ! Work out your salvation with diligence ! " This was the last word of Him-who-has-thus-attained. Then the Exalted One entered the first stage of Rapture, and the second, third, and fourth: and rising from the fourth stage, he entered into the station of the infinity of space: thence again into the station of the infinity of thought : thence again into the station of emptiness : then into the station between consciousness and unconsciousness : and then into the station where the consciousness both of sensations and ideas has wholly passed away. And now it seemed to Ananda that the Master had passed away : but he entered again into every station in reverse order until he reached the second stage of Rapture, and thence he passed into the third and fourth stages of Rapture. And passing out of the last stage of Rapture he immediately expired. 1 According to Buddhaghosha this refers to Ananda himself, and was said for his encouragement. 86 The Funeral Rites The Distress of the Brethren When the Exalted One died, of those of the Brethren who were not yet free from the passions, some stretched out their arms and wept, and some fell headlong on the ground, rolling to and fro in anguish at the thought: "Too soon has the Exalted One died! Too soon has the Happy One passed away ! Too soon has the Eye in the world passed away." But those of the Brethren who were free from the passions, to wit, the Arahats, bore their grief collected and composed in the thought: "Impermanent are all component things ! How is it possible that they should not be dissolved ? " And the Venerable Anuruddha exhorted the Brethren, and said: "Enough, my Brethren! Weep not, nor lament! Has not the Exalted One formerly declared this to us, that it is in the very nature of all things near and dear unto us, that we must divide ourselves from them, leave them, sever ourselves from them? How then, Brethren, can this be possible that when dead anything whatever born, brought into being, organized and containing within itself the inherent necessity of dissolution how then can this be possible that such a being should not be dissolved ? No such condition can exist ! " The Funeral Rites On the next day Ananda informed theMallas of Kusinara that the Exalted One had passed away; and they too stretched forth their arms and wept, or fell prostrate on the ground, or reeled to and fro in anguish at the thought : " Too soon has the Exalted One died ! " And they took perfumes and garlands, and all the music in Kusinara, and proceeded to the Sala Grove, where the 87 Buddha ^f the Gospel of Buddhism body of the Exalted One was lying. And they spent there six days paying honour and homage to the remains of the Exalted One, with dancing and hymns and music, and with garlands and perfumes. On the seventh day they bore the body of the Exalted One through the city and out by the Eastern gate to the shrine of the Mallas, there to be burnt upon the pyre. They wrapped the body in layers of carded cotton wool and woven cloth, and placed it in a vessel of iron, and that again in another-; and building a funeral pyre of perfumed woods, they laid the body of the Exalted One upon it. Then four chief- tains of the Mallas bathed their heads and clad themselves in new garments with the intention of setting on fire the funeral pyre. But lo, they were not able to set it burning. Now the reason of this was that the venerable Maha Kassapa was then journeying from Pava to Kusinara with a company of five hundred Brethren : and it was willed by the gods that the pyre should not take fire until the venerable Maha Kassapa together with these Brethren had saluted the feet of the Master. And when Maha Kassapa came to the place of the funeral pyre, then he walked thrice round about it and bowed in reverence to the feet of the Exalted One, and so did the five hundred Brethren. And when this was ended, the funeral pyre caught fire of itself. And what was burnt was the flesh and the fluids of the body, and all the wrappings, and only the bones were left behind ; and when the body was thus burnt, streams of water fell from the sky and rose up from the ground and extinguished the flames, and the Mallas also extinguished the fire with vessels of scented water. They laid the bones in state in the Council Hall of the Mallas, set round with a lattice-work of spears and a rampart of bows, and The Funeral Rites there for seven days they paid honour and reverence to them with dancing and music and garlands and perfumes. Now these matters were reported to Ajatasattu, and to the Licchavis of Vesali, and to the Sakyas of Kapi- lavatthu, and the Bulis of Allakappa, and the Koliyas of Ramagama, and to the Brahman of Vethadlpa; and all these, with the Mallas of Kusinara, laid claim to the remains of the Exalted One, and wished to erect a mound above them, and to celebrate a feast of honour. The Mallas, however, saying that the Exalted One had died in their village, refused to part with the remains. Then a certain Brahman of the name of Dona reminded the assembled chieftains that the Buddha was wont to teach forbearance, and he recommended that the remains should be divided into eight portions, and that a monument should be erected by each of those who laid claim, in their several territories ; and this was done accordingly. Dona himself erected a monument over the vessel in which the remains had been guarded, and the Moriyas of Pippalivana, who made claim to a share when the dis- tribution had already been made, erected a mound above the ashes of the fire. And thus there were eight monu- ments for the remains of the Exalted One, and one other for the vessel, and another for the ashes. PART II : THE GOSPEL OF EARLY BUDDHISM /. DHAMMA, THE DOCTRINE AND DISCIPLINE Just, O Brethren, as the wide sea has but one taste, the taste of salt, so also, Brethren, have this Doctrine and Discipline one only taste, the taste of Salvation* Cullavagga ix. THE whole of the doctrine (dkamma, Sanskrit dharma) of Gautama is simply and briefly capitulated in the Four Ariyan Truths (Ariyasaccani) or axioms : That there is suffering (Dukkha)^ that it has a cause (Samudaya), that it can be suppressed (Nirodha)^ and that there is a way to accomplish this (Magga), the * Path/ This represents the application of current medical science to the healing of the spiritually sick. The good physician, seeing Every- man in pain, proceeds to diagnosis : he reflects upon the cure, and commends the necessary regime to the patient this is the history of the life of Gautama. The sick soul knows its sickness only by its pain; it seeks the cause of its suffering, and the assurance of a remedy, and asks what shall it do to be saved this is the history of those who take refuge in the Law of the Buddha. Let us repeat here the essential part of Gautama's first sermon : x " This, O monks, is the Ariyan Truth of Suffering : Birth is suffering, old age is suffering, sickness is suffering, death is suffering, to be united with the unloved is suffer- ing, to be separated from the loved is suffering, not to obtain what one desires is suffering; in short, the fivefold clinging to the senses is suffering. 1 Here after Oldenberg, Buddha^ 2nd English ed,, p, 206, with a few verbal alterations. 90 Dukkha " This, O monks, is the Ariyan Truth of the Origin of Suffering : It is the will to life which leads from birth to birth, together with lust and desire, which finds gratification here and there ; the thirst for pleasures, the thirst for being, the thirst for power. " This, O monks, is the Ariyan Truth of the Extinction of Suffering: The extinction of this thirst by complete annihilation of desire, letting it go, expelling it, separating oneself from it, giving it no room. " This, O monks, is the Ariyan Truth of the Path which leads to the Extinction of Suffering: It is this sacred Eightfold Path, to-wit: Right Belief, Right Aspiration, Right Speech, Right Conduct, Right Living, Right Effort, Right Recollectedness, Right Rapture/' It is the first division of the Eightfold Path, Right Belief, Views, or Faith, which constitute the Gospel of Buddha, the Doctrine of Buddhism, which we shall now set forth systematically. This teaching consists in a knowledge of the world and of man " as they really are." This right knowledge is most tersely summarized in the triple formula of Dukkka,> Anicca> Anattd Suffering, Imper- manence, Non-egoity. The knowledge of these principles is a knowledge of The Truth. 1 Let us consider them in order and detail. Dukkha The existence of Suffering, or Evil, is the very raison- tf&re of Buddhism : " If these things were not in the world, my disciples, the Perfect One, the holy Supreme Buddha, would not appear in the world; the law and the doctrine which the Perfect One propounded would not shine in the 1 Majjhima Nikaya^ i, 140. 91 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism world. What three things are they? Birth, old age, and death. " Both then and now, says the Buddha again, just this do I reveal : Suffering and the Extinction of Suffering." Dukkha is to be understood both as symptom and as disease. In the first sense it includes all possible physical and mental loss, "all the meanness and agony without end," suffering and imperfection of whatever sort to which humanity and all living beings (gods not excepted) are subject. In the second sense it is the liability to ex- perience these evils, which is inseparable from individual existence. So far Gautama has put forward nothing which is not obviously a statement of fact. It might, indeed, appear that in our life pain is compensated for by pleasure, and the balance must indeed be exact here, as between all pairs of opposites. But as soon as we reflect, we shall see that pleasure itself is the root of pain, for " Sorrow springs from the flood of sensual pleasure as soon as the object of sensual desire is removed." * In the words that are quoted on our title-page : Vraiement comencent amours en ioye et fynissent en dolours ; in the words of Nietzsche, " Said ye ever Yea to one joy ? O my friends, then said ye Yea also unto all Woe." According to the Dhammapada: " From merriment cometh sorrow ; from merriment cometh fear. Whosoever is free from merriment, for him there is no sorrow: whence should fear come to him? From love cometh sorrow; from love cometh fear. Whosoever is free from love, for him there is no sorrow : whence should come fear to him ?" But not only is pleasure the prelude to pain, pleasure i* 1 Visuddhi Magga^ xvii. 92 Anicca pain itself ; again in the words of Nietzsche, " Pleasure is a form of pain.' 1 For there is for ever a skeleton at the feast : happiness in the positive sense, joy that depends on contact with the source of pleasure external to oneself, cannot be grasped, it cannot endure from one moment to another. It is the vanity of vanities to cling to that which never is, but is for ever changing; and those who realize that all this world of our experience is a Becoming, and never attains to Being, will not cling to that which cannot be grasped, and is entirely void. Accordingly, the whole of Buddhist psychology is directed to an analysis of consciousness, directed to reveal its ever- changing and composite character. Anicca Impermanence is the inexorable, fundamental and pitiless law of all existence. "There are five things which no Samana, and no Brahman, and no god, neither Mara, nor Brahma, nor any being in the universe, can bring about. What five things are those? That what is subject to old age should not grow old, that what is subject to sickness should not be sick, that what is subject to death should not die, that what is subject to decay should not decay, that what is liable to pass away should not pass away. This no Samana can bring about, nor any god, neither Mara, nor Brahma, nor any being in the universe." Just as Brahmanical thought accepts the temporal eter- nity of the Samsara, an eternal succession and coincidence of evolution and involution, and an eternal succession of Brahmas, past and future : so also Gautama lays emphasis 93 Buddha &P the Gospel of Buddhism and more special emphasis, perhaps upon the eternal succession of Becoming. The following stanza has indeed been called the Buddhist confession of faith, and it appears more frequently than any other text in Indian Buddhist inscriptions : Of those conditions which spring from a cause The cause has been told by Tathagata : And the manner of their suppression The great Samana has likewise taught. How essential in Buddhism is the doctrine of the eternal succession of causes appears from the fact that it is often spoken of as the gospel : " I will teach you the Dhamma," says Gautama, " That being present, this becomes; from the arising of that, this arises. That being absent, this does not become ; from the cessation of that, this ceases." * We read again that " Dhamma-analysis is knowledge concerning conditions." 2 What he taught was designed to avoid the two extreme doctrines of realism and nihilism, the belief in pheno- menal being and the belief that there is no phenomenal process at all. " Everything is : this, O Kaccana, is one extreme view. Everything is not : this is the second extreme view. Avoiding both these extremes, the Tathagata teaches the Norm by the Mean," This doctrine of the Mean asserts that everything is a Becoming, a flux without beginning (first cause) or end ; there exists no static moment when this becoming attains to beinghood no sooner can we conceive it by 1 Majjfdma Nikaya^ ii, 32. a Vidhanga. 94 Anicca the attributes of name and form, than it has trans- migrated or changed to something else. In place of an individual, there exists a succession of instants of consciousness. "Strictly speaking, the duration of the life of a living being is exceedingly brief, lasting only while a thought lasts. Just as a chariot wheel in rolling rolls only at one point of the tire, and in resting rests only at one point; in exactly the same way, the life of a living being lasts only for the period of one thought. As soon as that thought has ceased, the living being is said to have ceased. " As it has been said : "The being of a past moment of thought has lived, but does not live, nor will it live. " The being of a future moment of thought will live, but has not lived, nor does it live. " The being of the present moment of thought does live, but has not lived, nor will it live. 5 ' x We are deceived if we allow ourselves to believe that there is ever a pause in the flow of becoming, a resting- place where positive existence is attained for even the briefest duration of time. It is only by shutting our eyes to the succession of events that we come to speak of things rather than of processes. The quickness or slowness of the process does not affect the generalization. Consider a child, a boy, a youth, a man, and an old man ; when did any of these exist ? there was an organism, which had been a babe, and was coming to be a child ; had been a child, and was coming to be a boy; and so on. The seed becomes seedling, and seedling a tree, and the tree lets fall its seeds. It is only by continuity, by watching the process of Becoming that we can identify the old man 95 Buddha &P the Gospel of Buddhism with the babe, the tree with the seed ; but the old man is not (identical with) the babe, nor the tree (with) the seed. The substance of our bodies, and no less the constitution of our souls, changes from moment to moment. That we give to such individuals a name and form is a pragmatic convention, and not the evidence of any inner reality. Every existence is organic, and the substance of its existence is a continuity of changes, each of which is absolutely determined by pre-existing conditions. Why is this law of causality of such great importance for Gautama, whose doctrine is not a mental gymnastic, but "just this : Evil and the Cessation of Evil " ? Because this doctrine is precisely the physician's diagnosis of the disease of Dukkka. As a constitutional disease, it is set forth in the well-known series of the Twelve Nidanas, the interconnection of which is spoken of as the Law of Dependent Origination (Paticca-samuppadd). The Twelve Nidanas, afterwards called the wheel of causation, are repeated in no less than ninety-six Suttas; and the im- portance of the series arises from the fact that it is at once a general explanation of phenomena, and an explanation of the special phenomenon of Evil in which the Buddhist were most interested. The effect of the series is to show that vinnana, the consciousness of I, does not reside in an eternal soul, but is a contingent phenomenon arising by way of cause and effect. It should be noted, as Professor Rhys Davids has pointed out, that the value of the series does not lie in the fact that it explains Evil, but in the fact that the right understanding of Causal Origination con- stitutes that very insight by which the source of Evil consciousness of I and the desires of the I is destroyed. The * Wheel of Causation 3 turns as follows: 1 1 MajjJtima Nikaya, i, 140, 9 6 Anicca Other lives Ignorance (avijja) (past) Pre-dispositions (sankhard) Prejudices or habits of thought, mental com- plexes, will (cetana) purpose or intention Consciousness (of I, etc.) (vmnana) Name and Form (nama-rupa) i.e. Mind and Body This present Sense organs (sadayatana, P. salayatana) life Contact (sparsa, P. pkassa) and Emotion (vedana) Craving (tanha) Attachment (upadana) Other lives Coming-to-be (bhavd) (future) Rebirth (jati] Old age and death, sorrow, lamentation, misery, grief, despair (jaramaranam, etc.) This list, wherever it occurs, ends with the formula 'Such is the uprising of this entire body of Evil. 5 It should be noted that the whole series of terms is not always repeated, and not always in the same order; these are rather the spokes of a wheel than its circumference. If we now ask what is the effect and what cause, it is clear that Ignorance lies at the root of all. From Ignor- ance arises the thought of entity, whereas there exists but a becoming; from the thought of self as entity, and from the desires of Me, arises life; life is inseparable from Evil. The diagnosis implies the cure; it is the removal of the conditions which maintain the pathological state. These conditions which maintain Ignorance, are primarily Craving and the thought of I and Mine, with all its Buddha ftP the Gospel of Buddhism implications of selfishness and superstition. The means to accomplish the cure are set forth in the mental and moral discipline of the Buddhist 'Wanderers.' Anatta Practically inseparable from the doctrine of Anicca is that of Anatta, that there exists no changeless entityjn any thing, and above all, no 'eternal soul' in man. Ananda inquires of the Buddha : " What is meant, lord, by the phrase, The world is empty ? " The Buddha replies: "That it is empty, Ananda, of a Self, or of anything of the nature of a Self. And what is it that is thus empty ? The five seats of the five senses, and the mind, and the feeling that is related to mind: all these are void of a Self or of anything that is Self-like/' l Mental states are phenomena like other phenomena, and nothing substantial such as a soul or ego lies behind them ; just as the names of things are concepts. The favourite similes are drawn from natural phenomena and from things constructed, such as a river, or a chariot. If you except the water, the sand, the hither bank and the further bank, where can you find the Ganges ? If you divide the chariot into its component parts, such as the wheels, the poles, the axle, the body, the seat, and so forth, what remains of the chariot but a name? a In the same way it will be found that when the component parts of con- sciousness are analyzed, there is no residue; the individual maintains a seeming identity from moment to moment, but this identity merely consists in a continuity of moments of consciousness, it is not the absence of change. " Like a river," says a modern Buddhist, " which still main- tains one constant form, one seeming identity, though not a 1 Samyutta Nikd,ya> iv, 54. 2 See below, p. 296. 9 8 Anatta single drop remains to ? day of all the volume that composed the river yesterday." x It is of the utmost importance to realize this truth, because for the individual possessed with the notion " I am form ; form belongs to the I," " through the changing and altera- tion of form arise sorrow, misery, grief, and despair/* The simile of the river emphasizes the continuity of an ever-changing identity. Another simile, drawn from sleep and dream, emphasizes the intermittent nature of consciousness ; the ordinary course of organic existence, called bhavanga-gati, is compared to the flow of dream- less sleep; consciousness is only awakened when some external stimulus causes a vibration in the normal flow. The complex elements of conscious existence are spoken of by the Buddhists in two ways in the first place as Nama-rHpa> literally name and form, that is to say, * man's nature and fleshly substance ' ; and in the second place, as the Five aggregates (khandha, skandka). These two or five embrace the whole of conscious experience without leaving over any activity to be explained by a * soul/ The relation of the two schemes will appear from the following table : MENTAL FACTOR PHYSICAL FACTOR 1. Nama- (synonyms : vinnana, citta, rupa mano, i.e. consciousness, heart, mind). 2. Vedana> sauna, sankhara, mnnana> (i.e. feeling, perception, will, etc., t upa and awareness). In both cases rupa is the physical organism (not * form 9 1 Anuruddha, Compendium of Philosophy. Introd. Essay by S. Z. Aung, p. 9. 99 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism in a philosophic or aesthetic sense), the fleshly nature ; Nama is name or mind ; nama and *upa, name (mere words) and body, are just those things by which a * person/ in fact complex and variable, appears to be a unity. In the second group, which is not, like the first, borrowed directly from the Upanishads, greater stress is laid on the several elements of the mental factor, with the practical object of shutting out any possible loophole for the intro- duction of the idea of a mind or soul as an unchanging unity. Vedana is * feeling,' with the hedonistic significance of pleasant, unpleasant, and neutral, resulting from contact with the objects of sense, and itself producing tanha, craving or desire. It is emphasized that * there is no distinct entity that feels/ * it is only feeling that feels or enjoys/ and this * because of some object which is in causal relation to pleasant or other feeling* (Buddha- ghosha). Buddhist thought knows no subject, and concentrates its attention upon the object. Sanna is perception of all kinds, sensuous or mental, that is to say, * awareness with recognition, this being expressed by naming* (Rhys Davids). The Sankharas form a complex group, including cetana, or will (volition), 1 and a series of fifty-one coefficients of any conscious state. Vinnana is ' any awareness of mind, no matter how general or how abstract the content/ It is to be noted that the terms rupa and vinndna are used in a more restricted sense in the fivefold classification than when used to embrace the whole of conscious exist- ence. The rather cumbrous system of the khandhas was 1 "I say that cetana is action; thinking, one acts by deed, word, or thought" Anguttara Nikaya, iii, 415. IOO The Four Paths later on replaced by a division into citta, mind, and cetasika, mental properties. All Indian thinkers are, of course, in agreement as to the material, organic nature of mind. For the serious study of Buddhist psychology the reader must consult either of Mrs Rhys Davids* two works on this subject. All that need be emphasized here is the practical purpose of the Buddhists in making use of these classifications. "Why," says Buddhaghosha, "did the Exalted One say there were five Aggregates, no less and no more ? Because these not only sum up all classes of conditioned things, but they afford no foothold for soul and the animistic; moreover, they include all other classi- fications." The Buddhists thus appear to admit that their psychology is expressly invented to prove their case. The Buddhists were, of course, very right in laying emphasis on the complex structure of the ego a fact which modern pathological and psychical research increas- ingly brings home to us but this complexity of the ego does not touch the question of the Brahmanical Atman, which is, 'not so, not so.* 1 So much, then, for the fundamental statement of * Right Views/ The Four Paths Frequent mention has been made of the Four Paths. This is a fourfold division of the last of the Four Ariyan Truths. The Four Paths, or rather four stages of the one Path, are as follows : i st. Conversion, entering upon the stream, which follows from companionship with the good, hearing the Law, enlightened reflection, or the practice of virtue. This 1 For this question see below, p. 198 seq. 101 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism depends upon a recognition of the Four Ariyan Truths, and is subsequent to the earliest step of merely taking refuge in the Buddha, the Law, and the Order, a formula which is repeated by every professing Buddhist, including the many who have not yet entered the Paths. The First Path leads to freedom from the delusion of Egoity, from doubt regarding the Buddha or his doctrines, and from belief in the efficacy of rites and ceremonies. 2nd. The Second Path is that of those who will only once more return to the world, and in that next birth will attain Final Release. In this Path the converted individual, already free from doubt and from the delusions of self and of ritualism, is able to reduce to a minimum the car- dinal errors of lust, resentment, and glamour. 3rd. The Third Path is that of those who will never return to this world, but will attain Release in the present life. Here the last remnants of lust and of resentment are destroyed. 4th, The Fourth Path is that of the Arahats, the adepts; here the saint is freed from all desire for re-birth, whether in worlds of form or no-form, and from pride, self-righteous- ness, and ignorance. The state of the Arahat is thus described : " As a mother, even at the risk of her own life, protects her son, her only son, so let there be goodwill without measure among all beings. Let goodwill without measure prevail in the whole world, above, below, around, un- stinted, unmixed with any feeling of differing or opposing interests. If a man remain steadfastly in this state of mind all the while he is awake, whether he be standing walking, sitting, or lying down, then is come to pass the saying, * Even in this world holiness has been found/ " * 1 Meffi Sutta. I O2 The Four Paths The following are the Ten Fetters, evil states of mind, or sins from which the aspirant is freed as he treads the Four Paths: Sakkaya-ditthi) the delusion of self or soul; Vicikiccha, doubt; Silabbata paramasa^ dependence upon rites; Kama, sensuality, physical desire; Patigha, hatred, resent- ment ; Rtiparaga, desire for life in worlds of matter ; Aru- paraga, desire for life in spiritual worlds ; Mano, pride ; Uddhacca, self-righteousness; and Avijja, ignorance. The aspirant becomes an Arahat when the first five of these are wholly overcome. Freedom from the other five is the < Fruit of the Fourth Path.' "They, having obtained the Fruit of the Fourth Path, and immersed themselves in that living water, have received without price, and are in the enjoyment of Nibbana" (Ratana Sutta). It will be noticed that a clear distinction is here drawn between the attainment of Arahatta and the realization of Nibbana, while in other places the two states are treated as identical. It is clear, however, that if Nibbana is the Fruit of the Fourth Path, those who have merely entered that Path, and are thus Arahats, have not yet attained the last freedom; they have, indeed, still fetters to break. There is another grouping of the sins from which the Saint is released, known as the Three, or Four Floods, or Intoxications or Taints. The three are: (i) Kama asava, sensuality; (2) Bhava asava, desire for re-birth; (3) Avijja asava, ignorance of the Four Ariyan Truths; while the fourth is Dittki, ' views/ or metaphysical speculation. He who is freed from these three, or four, Deadly Taints of Lusts, Will to Life, Ignorance, and Views, has likewise attained release, and for him there is no return. 103 Buddha &P the Gospel of Buddhism II. SAMSARA AND KAMMA (KARMA) We are now in a better position to understand the theory of soul-wandering in Early Buddhism. I say particularly Early Buddhism, because in the greater part of pre-Buddhist thought, and in all popular thought, whether Brahmanical or Buddhist, the doctrine of metem- psychosis, the passing of life from one form to another at death, is conceived animistically as the transmigration of an individual soul. Take for example, such a text as Bhagavad Glta, ii, 22 : " As a man lays aside outworn garments and takes others that are new, so the Body-Dweller puts away outworn bodies and goes to others that are new." Here the language is plainly animistic. One reader will understand that a soul, an ethereal mannikin, removes from one abode to another; a second reader, observing that This (Body- Dweller) is no other than That which is ' not so, not so/ perceives that empirically speaking nothing nothing that we can call anything transmigrates. There is here an ambiguity which is inseparable in the case of all concep- tions which are sublimated from experiences originally animistic or sensuous. 1 Brahmanical thought does not seek to evade this ambiguity of expression, which is, moreover, of historical significance; and this continuity of develop- ment has the advantage that no impassable gulf is fixed between the animist and the philosopher. This advantage is emphasized by Sankara in his distinc- tion of esoteric and exoteric knowledge, para and apara 1 As, for example, in the analogous case of rasa, which meant taste or flavour in the sense of savour, and has come to mean in a technical sense, aesthetic emotion. So with ananda^ originally physical pleasure, afterwards also spiritual bliss. 104 Samsara and Kamma vidyai to That which is 'not so, not so, 5 attributes are ascribed for purposes of worship or byway of accommoda- tion to finite thought. This ascription of attributes, on the part of laymen, is regarded by the philosopher with lenience : for he understands that the Unshown Way, the desire for That-which-is-not, is exceeding hard. Those who have not yet won their way to idealism, may not and cannot altogether dispense with idols. 1 Brahmanism, regarded as a Church, is distinguished from the Buddhism of Gautama not yet the Buddhism of the Buddhist Church by this tenderness to its spiritual children: " Let not him that knoweth much awaken doubt in slower men of lesser wit." 2 Gautama, on the other hand, is an uncompromising iconoclast. He preaches only to higher men, such as will accept the hard sayings of Dukkha, Anicca, and Anatta in all their nakedness. This position enabled him to maintain one single argu- ment with entire consistence; he needed not to acknow- ledge even the relative value of other forms or degrees of truth ; he wished to break entirely with current absolutist and animistic thought. This position emphasized for him the difficulty of express- ing what he wished to teach, through the popular and animistic language of the day ; and yet he could not avoid the use of this language, except at the cost of making himself unintelligible. This difficulty may well have 1 Those spiritual purists who insist that absolute truths, such as anattd (non-egoity), and neti^ neti (not so, not so) ought alone to be taught, and who despise all theological and aesthetic interpretation of these realities as false, should consider the saying of Master Kassapa : " Moral and virtuous Wanderers and Brahmans do not force maturity on that which is unripe; they, being wise, wait for that maturity." Payasi Sutta, Dialogues of the Buddha^ ii, 332. 2 Bkagavad Gita^ iii, 29. 105 Buddha ^f the Gospel of Buddhism contributed to the hesitation which he felt in regard to the preaching of the gospel. The method he was forced to adopt, was to make use of the current phraseology, expanding and emphasizing in his own way, and employing well-known words in new uses. We have therefore to guard ourselves, as Buddhaghosha says, from supposing that the manner of stating the case exactly expresses the fact. The term Samsara is a case in point; for this * Wandering' is not for Gautama the wandering of any thing. Buddhism nowhere teaches the transmigration of souls, but only the transmigration of character, of personality without a person. Many are the similes employed by Gautama to show that no thing transmigrates from one life to another. The ending of one life and the beginning of another, indeed, hardly differ in kind from the change that takes place when a boy becomes a man that also is a transmigration, a wandering, a new becoming. Among the similes most often used we find that of flame especially convenient. Life is a flame, and transmigration, new becoming, rebirth, is the transmitting of the flame from one combustible aggregate to another; just that, and nothing more. If we light one candle from another, the communicated flame is one and the same, in the sense of an observed continuity, but the candle is not the same. Or, again, we could not offer a better illustration, if a modern instance be permitted, than that of a series of billiard 'balls in close contact : if another ball is rolled against the last stationary ball, the moving ball will stop dead, and the foremost stationary ball will move on. Here precisely is Buddhist transmigration: the first moving ball does not pass over, it remains behind, it dies ; but it is undeniably the movement of that ball, its momentum, 106 Samsara and Kamma its kamma> and not any newly created movement, which is reborn in the foremost ball. Buddhist reincarnation is the endless transmission of such an impulse through an endless series of forms ; Buddhist salvation is the coming to understand that the forms, the billiard balls, are compound structures subject to decay, and that nothing is transmitted but an impulse, a vis a tergo, dependent on the heaping up of the past. It is a man's character, and not himself, that goes on. It is not difficult to see why Gautama adopted the current doctrine of kamma (action, by thought, word, or deed). In its simplest form, this doctrine merely asserts that actions are inevitably followed by their consequences, * as a cart a horse/ So far as tfye experience of one life goes, it is simply the law of cause and effect, with this addition, that these causes are heaped up in character^ whereby the future behaviour of the individual is very largely determined. Kamma must not be confused with mechanical pre- destination. It does not eliminate responsibility nor invalidate effort: it merely asserts that the order of nature is not interrupted by miracles. It is evident that I must lie on the bed I have made. I cannot effect a miracle, and abolish the bed at one blow ; I must reap as * I f have so^vn, and the recognition of this fact I call kamma. It is equally certain that my own present efforts repeated and well directed will in course of time bring into existence another kind of bed, and the recognition of this fact I also call kamma. So far, then, from inhibiting effort, the doctrine of kamma teaches that no result can be attained without * striving hard.' There is indeed nothing more essential to the Buddhist discipline than * Right Effort.' 107 Buddha ftP the Gospel of Buddhism If we combine the doctrine of kamma with that of samsara, Meeds* with ' wandering, 5 kamma represents a familiar truth the truth that the history of the individual does not begin at birth. " Man is born like a garden ready planted and sown." Before I was born out of my mother generations guided me. . . . Now on this spot I stand. This heredity is thinkable in two ways. The first way, the truth of which is undeniable, represents the action of past lives on present ones; 1 the second, which may or may not be true, represents the action of a single con- tinuous series of past lives on a single present life. The Buddhist theory of kamma plus samsara does not differ from its Brahmanical prototype in adopting the second view. This may have been because of its pragmatic advantage in the explanation of apparent natural in- justice ; for it affords a reasonable answer to the question, "Who did sin, this man or his parents, that he was born 1 That the human individual is polypsychic^ that an indefinite number of streams of consciousness coexist in each of us which can be variously and in varying degrees associated or dissociated is now a doctrine widely accepted even by " orthodox psychology." G. W. BALFOUR, Hibfart Journal, No. 43. The same thought is expressed more Buddhistically by Lafcadio Hearn : " For what is our individuality ? Most certainly it is not individuality at all ; it is multiplicity incalculable. What is the human body ? A form built up out of billions of living entities, an impermanent agglomeration of individuals called cells. And the human soul? A composite of quintillions of souls. We are, each and all, infinite compounds of fragments of anterior lives." In the Psalm of Ananda: "a congeries diseased, teeming with many purposes and places, and yet in whom there is no power to persist." 108 Samsara and Kamma blind?" The Indian theory replies without hesitation, this man. Buddhism, however, does not explain in what way a continuity of cause and effect is maintained as between one life A and a subsequent life B, which are separated by the fact of physical death; the thing is taken for granted. 1 Brahmanical schools avoid this difficulty by postulating an astral or subtle body (the linga-sarirct), a material complex, not the Atman, serving as the vehicle of mind and character, and not disintegrated with the death of the physical body. In other words, we have a group, of body, soul, and spirit; where the two first are material, complex and phenomenal, while the third is *not so, not so.' That which transmigrates, and carries over kamma from one life A to another life B, is the soul or subtle body (which the Vedanta entirely agrees with Gautama in defining as non-Atman). It is this subtle body which forms the basis of a new physical body, which it moulds upon itself, effecting as it were a spiritualistic * mate- rialization* which is maintained throughout life. The principle is the same wherever the individual is reborn, in heaven or purgatory or on earth. In this view, though it is not mentioned by Buddhists, 2 there is nothing contrary to Buddhist theory. The validity of the dogma of non-eternal-soul remains un- challenged by the death survival of personality; for that survival could not prove that the personality constitutes 1 Vide T. W. Rhys Davids, Early Buddhism^ p. 78. 2 Vidt T. W. Rhys Davids, Ibid. p. 78. That the theory of the subtle body is not mentioned accords with Gautama's general objection to the discussion of eschatology. It is, however, a tribute to the value of Buddhist thought, that even the proof of the survival of the person- ality would not affect the central doctrine of the soul's complexity and phenomenal character. 109 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism an eternal unity, nor can it prove that anything at all survived the attainment of Nibbana. We may indeed say that Buddhism, notably in the Jatakas, takes the survival of personality (up to the time of attaining Nibbana) for granted; and were it otherwise, there would be little reason for the strong Buddhist objection to suicide, which is based on the very proper ground that it needs something more powerful than a dose of poison to destroy the illusion of I and Mine. To accomplish that requires the untiring effort of a strong will. III. BUDDHIST HEAVENS AND HOW TO REACH THEM Gautama has not denied the existence of gods or of future states of existence in heavens or hells. Buddhism is atheistic only in the sense that it denies the existence of a First Cause, and emphasizes the conception of the mortality of all divine beings, however long-lived they may be supposed to be. Apart from this, Gautama is represented as not merely acquiescing in popular beliefs, but as speaking of his own intercourse with the gods and visits to their heavens; and, still more important, all those spiritual exercises which do not lead directly to Nibbana are generally commended as securing the lesser, but still very desirable, fruits of re-birth, in the lower heavens, or in the Brahma-worlds of Form or No- form. In all this, moreover, there is nothing illogical to the spirit of the Dhamma, which insists on the law of Becoming, but does not necessarily exclude the possibility of other modes of Becoming than those familiar in our order of experience. Spiritualism, in other words, while quite unessential to early Buddhism, does not in $ny way contradict the Dhamma. no Buddhist Heavens and How to Reach Them The four highest heavens, free from sensuous desire and not conditioned by form. These heavens are attained by practice of the Four Atupa i Planes of No-' form. Rupa-lokaS) or ^ Jhanas. The sixteen heavens free from sen- Planes Form. of suous desire but conditioned by form. These heavens are attained by practice of the Four Jhanas. Paranimitta-vasavatti gods. Nimmana rati gods. Tusita heaven (where Gautama Buddha re- sided previous to his last birth and where Metteya now awaits his last birth). Yama gods. Tavatimsa heaven (where reside the Thirty-three gods and their chief Sakka). 1 The Four Great Kings (Guardians of the Four Quarters, N., S., E., and W.). The five worlds of men, demons, ghosts, animals, and purgatory. 1 A hundred of our years make one day and night of the Gods of the Suite of the Thirty-three ; thirty such days and nights their month ; and twelve such months their year. And the length of their lives is a thousand such celestial years, or in human reckoning, thirty-six million years. Payasi Sutta. Ill Kama-lokaS) or Planes of Sen- suous Desire (these are also Rupa-lokas but are not Brahmalokas) The six Kama- vacara deva- lokas. These heavens are< attained by the merit of good works. Buddha ^P the Gospel of Buddhism The chief of the gods who are commonly spoken of in the Suttas, are Sakka and Brahma. 1 Sakka, as it were, is king of the Olympians, * the Jupiter of the multitude/ and is more or less to be identified with the Indra of popular Brahmanism. Greater than Sakka and more spiritually conceived, is Brahma, the supreme overlord of orthodox Brahman theology in the days of the Buddha. Both of these divinities are represented in the Suttas as converts to the Dhamma of the Buddha, who is the * teacher of gods and men/ A whole group of Suttas has to do with the conversion and exhortation of these gods, and these Suttas are evidently designed to make it appear that the Brahman gods are really on the side of Gautama, and to this end they are made to speak as enlightened and devout Buddhists. The Buddhist cosmogony though related to the Brah- manical, is nevertheless peculiar to itself in detail, and deserves some attention. It will be better understood from the table on page 1 1 1 than by a lengthy description. The most essential and the truest part of this cosmogony however (and the only part which is dwelt upon in the more profound passages of early Buddhist scripture), is the three-fold division into the Planes of Desire, the Brahma Planes conditioned by Form, and the Brahma Planes unconditioned by Form. There is a profound truth concealed even in the mythological idea of the possibility of visiting the Brahma worlds while yet living on earth. Does not he rise above the Plane of Desire who in aesthetic contemplation is "aus sick selbst entruckt?"* does not the geometrician also know the Brahma Planes of Form? There are phases of experience that can carry us further. 1 The impersonal Brahman is unknown to Buddhist dialectic, 2 Goethe, Faust> ii, p. 258. IJ2 Buddhist Heavens ftp How to Reach Them M. Poincar6 writes of the mathematician Hermite: " Jamais il n'tvoquait une image sensible, et pourtant vous vous aperceviez bientdt que les entitts les plus abstraites ttaient pour lui comme des fores mvants. line les voyait pas, mais il sentait qdelles ne sont pas un assemblage artificiel^ et qrfelles ont je ne sais quel principe d?unit& interne"* Does not Keats, moreover, refer to the Brahma Plane unconditioned by Form, when he writes in one of his letters : " There will be no space, and conse- quently the only commerce between spirits will be by their intelligence of each other when they will completely understand each other, while we, in this world, merely comprehend each other in different degrees"? If it be true that he who does not attain to Nibbana here and now is reborn in some other world and this is taken for granted in early Buddhism then what is more reasonable than to suppose that those who cultivate here on earth those states of mind which we have indicated, viz. the states of self-absorption in the contemplation of beauty or of ideal form, or in the most abstract thought, are reborn in those worlds which they have so often visited ? This consideration is maintained as follows in the Tevijja Sutta : 1 La Valeur de la Science. Mrs Rhys Davids notices the apparent absence of music in the higher Buddhist heavens (Buddhist Psychology, p. xlv) ; but where form must be replaced by 'high fetches of abstract thought,' there also music may be silent^ and may not need those articulated instruments which are used in the lower heavens of sense. "Pythagoras . . . did not say that the movements of the heavenly bodies made an audible music, but that it was itself a music . . . supra- sensible" (Schelling); "There the whole sky is filled with sound, and there that music is made without fingers and without strings" (Kablr). There also, and in the same way, exists eternally the Veda or Dhamma which is only 'heard 1 in lower worlds. Buddha ^f the Gospel of Buddhism Having described the Four Sublime Moods, Gautama asks: ** Now what think you, Vasettha, will the Bhikkhu who thus lives be in possession of women and of wealth, or will he not ?" * He will not, Gautama ! " " Will he be full of anger, or free from anger? " " He will be free from anger, Gautama ! " " Will his mind be full of malice, or free from malice ? " " Free from malice, Gautama ! " " Will his mind be tarnished, or pure ? " " It will be pure, Gautama ! " " Will he have self-mastery, or will he not ? " "Surely he will, Gautama! " " Then you say, Vasettha, that the Bhikkhu is free from household and worldly cares, and that Brahma is free from household and worldly cares. Is there then agree- ment and likeness between the Bhikkhu and Brahma ? " "There is, Gautama I" "Very good, Vasettha. Then in sooth, Vasettha, that the Bhikkhu who is free from household cares should after death, when the body is dissolved, become united with Brahma, who is the same such a condition of things is every way possible ! " 1 We must not, however, suppose that the cultivation of the Four Sublime Moods by an ascetic, and according to the strict Buddhist formula, is the only means of attaining to union with Brahma. Buddhist scripture recognizes beside these ethical exercises other special conditions of intellect and emotion which are attained in the 'Four Jhanas,' and these practices, like those of the Four Sublime Moods, may be followed by householders as well as by ascetics. 1 T. W. Rhys Davids, Dialogues of the Buddha, i, p. 318, 114 Nibbana If it should be proved, or come to be generally believed in the modern world that personality survives death and is it reasonable to suppose that the accident of death should suffice to overcome the individual Will to Life ? then some such classification of the heavens as is indi- cated in early Buddhist eschatology may well be used ; alternatively, we might speak of the three heavens of the Monist Beauty, Love, and Truth. And we may well believe with the early Buddhists that those who shall reach these heavens are precisely those who have already experienced similar states of consciousness : the various ranks of artists, lovers, and philosophers. The self- devotion and self-forgetfulness of these must lead as surely as the Buddhist trances to the Brahma-worlds, on the principle that like to like attains. Equally with the Buddhist trances also, must the concentra- tion of the artist, lover and philosopher tend to final emancipation. IV. NIBBANA "The story admits of being told thns far, but what follows is hidden, and cannot be told in voids" Jallaluddin Rumi. Nibbana is one of the many names for the goal and sum- mum 6onum to which all other purposes of Buddhist thought converge. What are Mokska to the Brahman, the Tao to the Chinese mystic, Fana to the Sufi, Eternal Life to the followers of Jesus, that is Nibbana to the Buddhist. To attain to this Nibbana, beyond the reach of Evil, is the single thought that moves the Budd- hist aspirant to enter on the Paths. Whoever would understand Buddhism, then, must seek to understand Nibbana: not, that is to say, to interpret it metaphysi- cally for speculation is one of the Deadly Taints but Buddha ^f the Gospel of Buddhism to understand its implications to an orthodox Buddhist and its meaning on the lips of Gautama. Unfortunately, the term Nibbana (in its Sanskrit form Nirvana) became familiar to European students long before the Buddhist scriptures had been made accessible ; and the early western writers on Buddhism " interpreted Buddhism in terms of their own belief, as a state to be reached after death. As such they supposed the ' dying out 5 must mean the dying out of * a soul * ; and endless were the discussions whether this meant eternal trance, or absolute annihilation of a soul." l How irrelevant was this discussion will be seen when we realize that Nibbana is a state to be realized here and now, and is recorded to have been attained by the Buddha at the beginning of his ministry, as well as by jnnumerable Arahats, his disciples ; and when we remember that Buddhism denies the existence of a soul, at any time, whether before or after death. In the MilindaPaHha, Nibbana is compared to a "glorious city, stainless and undefiled, pure and white, ageless, deathless, secure, calm and happy " ; and yet this city is very far from being a heaven to which good men attain after death : "There is no spot, O king, East, South, West or North, above, below or beyond, where Nibbana is situate, and yet Nibbana is; and he who orders his life aright, grounded in virtue, and with rational attention, may realize it, whether he live in Greece, China, Alexandria, or in Kosala." 1 But the Mittnda Panha also speaks (erroneously) of an Arahat as c entering into ' Nibbana, saying that the layman who attains to Arahatta must either enter the Order or pass into Nibbana, the latter alternative here implying physical death (as in the case of Suddhodana, the father of Buddha, p. 48). 116 Nibbana He enters into this city who * emancipates his mind in Arahatta.' The literal meaning of the word Nibbana is : ' dying out/ or ' extinction/ as of a fire. 1 To understand its technical import we must call to mind the simile of flame so con- stantly employed in Buddhist thought: "The whole world is in flames/' says Gautama. " By what fire is it kindled ? By the fire of lust (raga), of resentment (dosa), of glamour (moha) ; by the fire of birth, old age, death, pain, lamentation, sorrow, grief and despair it is kindled." The process of transmigration, the natural order of Be- coming, is the communication of this flame from one aggregate of combustible material to another. The salvation of the Arahat, the saint, then, is the dying down Nibbana of the flames of lust, hate, and glamour, and of the will to life. Nibbana is just this, and no more and no less. Nibbana (nirvana) is the only Buddhist term for salvation familiar to western readers, but it is only one of many that occur in the orthodox Buddhist scriptures. Perhaps the broadest term is Vimokha, or Vimutti, * salvation* or 1 Other etymologies axe possible : thus "It is called Nibbana, in that it is a 'de-parture' from that craving which is called vana, lusting" (Anuruddha, Compendium of Philosophy^ iv, 14). It is important to remember that the term Nirvana is older than Buddhism, and is one of the many words used by Gautama in a special sense. In the Upanishads it does not mean the dying out of anything, but rather perfect self-realization; to those in whom the darkness of ignorance has been dispersed by perfect knowledge, 'as the highest goal there opens before them the eternal, perfect, Nirvanam 7 (Chandogya Upanishad, 8, 1 5, i). Buddhisfe usage emphasizes the strict etymological significance of 'dying out;' but even so, it is not the dying out of aoul or an indi- viduality, for no such thing exists, and therefore no such thing can die out ; it is only the passions (craving, resentment and delusion) that can die out. As to what remains, if anything, early Buddhism is silent* 117 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism 'deliverance, 5 and those who have attained this salvation are called Arahats, adept, whilst the state of adeptship is called Arahatta. Other terms and definitions include the 'end of suffering, 5 the * medicine for all evil, 5 c living water/ the * imperishable, 5 the 'abiding, 5 the * ineffable, 5 the * detachment, 5 the * endless security. 5 The Nibbana of which we have so far spoken, it will be seen, is essentially ethical; but this Nibbana involves, and is often used as a synonym for, *the cessation of becoming 5 ; * and this, of course, is the great desideratum, of which the ethical * extinction 5 is merely the means and the outward sign. Salvation (vimutti) has thus also a psychological aspect, of which the most essential element is the release from individuality. Thus we find defined the following Eight Stations of Deliverance: (i) Having oneself external form, one sees forms ; (2) unaware of one's own external form, one sees forms external to oneself; (3) aesthetic hypnosis ; (4) abiding in the sphere of space regarded as infinite ; (5) abiding in the sphere of cognition regarded as infinite; (6) abiding in the sphere of nothing- ness; (7) abiding in the sphere of neither ideation nor non-ideation; and (8) abiding in the state where both sensations and ideas have ceased to be. 2 Another way to realize the practical connotation of the Buddhist Nibbana, is to consider the witness of those Arahats who, beside Gautama, have attained thereto. Two of Gautama's disciples are said to have testified as follows : " Lord, he who is Arahant, who . . . has won his own salvation, has utterly destroyed the fetters of 1 Samyutta Nikaya, ii, 115. 2 Maha Nidana Sutta, 35 ; Mahaparinibbana Sutta, 33. The 4th-7th stations are identical with the Four Arupa Jhanas by which the Formless heavens are attained see pp, in, 147. Nibbana becoming, who is by perfect wisdom emancipate, to him there does not occur the thought that any are better than /, or equal to me, or less than /." " Even so," answered Gautama, " do men of the true stamp declare the gnosis they have attained ; they tell what they have gained (attka) 9 but do not speak of I (at to)" * The emancipation con- templated in early Buddhism is from mana, the conceit of self-reference, the Samkhyan akamkara. Of him that has attained we can truly say that nothing of himself is left in him. Thus we find a dialogue of two disciples; one has a serene and radiant expression, and the other asks, "Where have you been this day, O Sariputta?" "I have been alone, in first Jhana (contemplation), brother," is the triumphant answer, "and to me there never came the thought: */ am attaining it; / have emerged with it!'" a For the effect on life of the experience of Nibbana, we have the witness of the Brethren and Sisters whose * Psalms * are recorded in the Thera-tkeri-gatha? To take the Brethren first : " Illusion utterly has passed from me," says one, "cool am I now; gone out all fire within." Another describes the easy movement of the life of the free: E*en as the high-bred steer with crested back lightly the plough adown the furrow turns, So lightly glide for me the nights and days, now that this pure untainted bliss is won" 1 Anguttara Nikaya, iii, 359. 2 Samyutta Ntkaya^ iii, 235. Cf. the Sufi conception of Fana al-fand, 'the passing away of passing away,' when even the consciousness of having attained fana disappears. 3 Written down 80 B.C., and available to English readers in the carefal and sympathetic versions of C. A. F. Rhys Davids, Psalms of the Sisters, 1910, and Psalms of the Brethren, 1913. 119 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism Perhaps the prevailing thought is a more or less rapturous delight in the escape from evil and from craving (dukkha and tanha), from lust, hate, and infatuation, and from the prospect of re-birth of continued Becoming in any other conditioned life. From the standpoint of will, again, there is emphasis upon the achievement of freedom, self-mastery, and so forth. And the attainment is also expressed poetically just as the Brahman in Brahmanical scripture is symbolized as < bliss/ 'intelligence,' etc. as light, truth, knowledge, happiness, calm, peace; but the similes are always cool, never suggesting any violent rapture or overmastering emotion. But while we recog- nize an unmistakable note of exultation in the conquest achieved here and now, we must also clearly recognize that orthodox Buddhist teaching is characterized by "the absence of all joy in the forward view; " l and, indeed, no mystic can look forward to greater bliss than has already been experienced : 2 to what more, indeed, can one who has already attained the summum bonum look forward, or what can the physical accident of death achieve for him who has already by his own effort reached the goal ? Gautama expressly refuses to answer any question relative to life after death, and he condemns all speculation as unedifying: "I have not," he says, addressing the venerable Malunkyaputta, who desired information on these points, "revealed that the Arahat exists after death, I have not revealed that he does not exist; I have not revealed that he at once exists and does not exist after death, nor that he neither exists nor does not exist after 1 C. A. R Rhys Davids, Psalms of the Brethren, 1913, p. xlviii. 2 For: " Paradise is still upon earth " (Behmen): " When I go hence, may my last words be, thdt what I have seen is unsurpassable " (Tagore). There is nothing- more to be desired. 120 Nibbana death. And why, Malunkyaputta, have I not revealed these things ? Because, O Malunkyaputta, they are not edifying, nor connected with the essence of the Norm, nor tend to turning of the will, to the absence of passion, to cessation, rest, to the higher faculties, to supreme wisdom, nor to Nibbana; therefore have I not revealed it." 1 The early Arahats, refraining loyally from speculation, might have concurred with Emerson in saying : " Of immortality the soul, when well employed, is incurious. It is so well that it is sure it will be well." It is most explicitly indicated that the state of Nibbana cannot be discussed : As a flame blown to and fro by the wind, says the Buddha, goes out and cannot be registered, even so a Sage, set free from name and form, has disappeared, and cannot be registered. The disciple inquires : Has he then merely disappeared, or does he indeed no longer exist ? For him who has disappeared, says the Buddha, there is no form ; that by which they say * He is ' exists for him no more ; when all conditions are cut off, all matter for discussion is also cut off. 2 Or again : As the fiery sparks from a forge are one by one extinguished^ And no one knows where they have gone, . . . So it is with those who have attained to com- plete emancipation, Who have crossed the flood of desire, Who have entered upon the calm delight. Of these no trace remains. 1 Majjhima Nikaya, Sutta 63, nibbada, turning away from the thrall of sense-desires and worldly things, etc. 2 Sutta-nipata, 1073-5. 121 Buddha &f the Gospel of Buddhism On this account they are sometimes compared to the birds of the air, whose path is hard to follow, because they leave no trace. 1 Let us return to the meaning of Nibbana or Vimutti as it applies to the still living Arahat. The Arahat and the Buddha have alike attained Nibbana or Vimutti, and are Vimutto; are we to understand that this state is continuously maintained from the moment of enlighten- ment to the moment of death ? If so, what is it that maintains life in the delivered being? This question arises equally in the Vedanta. The usual answer is that the momentum of antecedent kamma suffices to carry on the individual life even after the 'Will to Life* has ceased, and this is expressed in the brilliant simile of the potter's wheel, which continues to turn for some time after the hand of the potter is removed. In any case it is evident that the freedom of the Arahat or Jlvan-mukta does not involve an immediate and permanent eman- cipation from mortality : the Buddha, for example, though he had long since attained Perfect Enlightenment, is recorded to have suffered from severe illness, and to have been aware of it. It is, no doubt, considerations of this sort which determined the distinction which was some- times drawn between Nibbana, or 'Dying Out/ and Parinibbana, Complete or Final Dying Out,' coincident with physical death. The Arahat has, indeed, passed through an experience which illumines all his remaining life : he knows things as they really are, and is saved from fear and grief : he has realized, if but for an instant, the Abyss, wherein all Becoming is not. He is satisfied of the authenticity of the experience by the very fact that the thought * I am 1 Dhammapada^ v. 92. 122 Nibbana experiencing, I have experienced ' was not present. But the mere fact that he knows that he has had this ex- perience, and may have it again may even command it at will proves that he does not continuously realize it. It is contrary, moreover, to all spiritual experience and we must protest strongly against the Buddhist claim that the Buddhist experience of salvation is unique that the highest rapture should be regarded as consciously coexistent with the ordinary activity of the empirical consciousness, even where the daily routine of life is so simple as that of the Buddhist Brother. And in Buddhist scriptures it is frequently indicated that both the Buddha and the Brethren pass into and out from the highest rapture. At other times the empirical consciousness must be awake and, indeed, this consciousness, being component and mutable, cannot, as such, be * set free.' Experience therefore suggests that while Nibbana is most assuredly accessible here and now as the mystics of all ages have emphatically testified a continuous realization of salva- tion is only thinkable after death. And, as the Buddha says, what that realization involves is not thinkable. Later Buddhism affords another explanation of the fact that we cannot regard Nibbana or Vimutti in this life as an uninterrupted experience. This explanation, which is akin to the Docetic heresy of Christianity, logically well founded, asserts that the emancipated individual the case of the Buddha is particularly considered in a system which regards Buddhahood rather than Arahatta as the goal is once and for all freed : and what remains, the living and speaking man on earth, is merely a mirage, existent in the consciousness of others, but not maintained by any inherent Will to Life it is once more, the potter's wheel, from which the hand of the potter has been lifted. 123 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism There is a certain amount of evidence tending to show that the Nibbana or Vimutti state affords the franchise of both worlds, the Byss as well as the Abyss. We read, for example, that when a Brother has mastered the Eight Stations of Deliverance " so that he is able to lose himself in, as well as to emerge from, any one of them, whenever he chooses, wherever he chooses, and for as long as he chooses when too by rooting out the Taints, he enters into and abides in that emancipation of heart, that emancipation of the intellect which he by himself, here in this present world, has come to know and realize then such a Brother, Ananda, is called < Free-in-both-ways/ " * Unfortunately we cannot here take " Free-in-both-ways " to mean " free of both worlds " the conditioned and the unconditioned for the phrase clearly refers to the dual character of Deliverance as at once psychological and ethical. But it ts 9 nevertheless, indicated that the adept Brother is free to pass from one world to the other, from the Byss to the Abyss, and the Abyss to the Byss at will : and we can hardly suppose that physical death involves the loss of this power : or if we do so, we have immediately drawn a distinction between Nibbana of the living individual, and Nibbana of the dead and the latter becomes the more limited, the less free. And that the Vimutta consciousness after the death of the individual or rather, altogether apart from the birth or death of the individual really touches both the Byss and the Abyss, as Brahmanical mysticism plainly asserts, is at any rate not denied by the Buddha. We even find it laid down that " To say of a Brother thus set free by insight * He knows not, he sees not * that were absurd!" 2 In other words, it is clear, the 1 Maha-Nidana Sutta, 36. 2 Ibid. 32. 124 Nibbana emancipated * individual,* after death, does not cease * to know things as they really are 3 : the doors of perception being cleansed, he must continue to see all things as they are, infinite or to revert to Buddhist phraseology, as void. There is however no individual who * sees,' for the erstwhile individual is likewise infinite or void : subject and object are unified in the Abyss. Thus once again, we cannot set up a final distinction between the positive and negative phraseology of mysticism. What is in any case certain is that the Buddhist (and Brah- manical) use of negatives does not imply that the state of freedom involves a loss for those who find it. For Western readers the language of Western mystics should be a sufficient indication of what is meant : Nibbana is assuredly 'that noble Pearl, which to the World appears Nothing, but to the Children of Wisdom is All Things? Precisely what Nibbana signifies in early Buddhism, and Nirvana in the Mahayana, could not be more exactly explained than in the first and second of the following paragraphs of Behmen's Dialogues : " Lastly, whereas I said, Whosoever finds it finds Nothing and all Things ; that is also certain and true. But how finds he Nothing'? Why, I will tell thee how He that findeth it findeth a supernatural, supersensual Abyss, which hath no ground or Byss to stand on, and where there is no place to dwell in ; and he findeth also nothing is like unto it and therefore it may fitly be compared to Nothing, for it is deeper than any Thing, and it is as Nothing with respect to All Things, forasmuch as it is not comprehensible by any of them. And because it is Nothing respectively, it is therefore free from All Things, and is that only Good, which a man cannot express or Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism utter what it is, there being Nothing to which it may be compared, to express it by. " But in that I lastly said : Whosoever finds it finds All Things; there is nothing can be more true than this assertion. It hath been the Beginning of All Things ; and it ruleth All Things. It is also the End of All Things ; and will thence comprehend All Things within its circle. All Things are from it, and in it, and by it. If thou findest it thou comest into that ground from whence All Things are proceeded, and wherein they subsist; and thou art in it a King over all the works of God." V. ETHICS " Let not a brother occupy himself with busy works." Theragatha, 1072. In considering the subject of Buddhist morality, we can- not, in the first place, too strongly emphasize the fact that it was no more the purpose of Gautama than of Jesus to establish order in the world. 1 Nothing could have been further from his thoughts than the redress of social in- justice, nor could any more inappropriate title be devised for Him-who-has-thus-attained, than that of democrat or social reformer. A wise man, says the Dkammapada^ should leave the dark state of life in the world and follow the bright state of life as a monk. 2 1 Dhammapada, v, 412. The Buddhist, like the Tolstoyau Christian, has no faith in government. We read of spiritual lessons for princes, but the 'road of political wisdom' is called 'an unclean path of false- ness ' (Jatakamdfa, xix, 2 7). The point is further illustrated in Gautama's refusal to intervene when the message is brought that Devadatta has usurped the throne of Kapilavatthu (supra, p. 32). "I am skilled in political wisdom, and therefore I do not put it into effect," Sutasoma Jataka, The Jfttakam&la (Speyer's tr.), p. 305. 2 Ibid. 87, 88. 126 Ethics Gautama's message is addressed to those in whom he perceived the potentiality of final insight already upon the point of ripening : for these he speaks the word of release from which arises the irresistible call to leave the world and to follow Nibbana. "To the wise belongeth this Law, and not to the foolish : " for children and those who are like children (as Professor Oldenberg remarks) the arms of Buddha are not opened. It is not even just to Gautama to contrast his Dhamma the Buddhist Norm with the Dharmas which are assigned to men of diverse social status in the Brahmanical social order. In order to view his doctrine without prejudice we must concentrate our attention upon the Sangka, the Order, which he founded: we must compare his system, not with other religions, but with other monastic systems, and consider whether or no its mental and moral discipline is calculated to bestow on those who follow it, the salvation which they desired. For Gautama certainly did not believe that salvation could be attained in any other way, nor by Brethren of any other Order : for such as these and for the vast mass of laymen there could be only a question of rebirth in favourable or unfavourable conditions according to the moral value of their deeds. 1 The early Buddhist ideal is not only far removed from what is immoral, but also, and not less far, from what is moral: it goes beyond these conceptions of good and 1 Buddhism has much to say of the future state of those who die unsaved, not having cut off the conditions which determine rebirth. As it is expressed by Mrs Rhys Davids, " The mass of good average folk, going, with the patience and courage of all sane mortals, through stage after stage of green immaturity, through the joys and sorrows that have recurred and will recur so infinitely often, heaven and purgatory and earth itself await their future/' 127 Buddha ftf the Gospel of Buddhism evil, for even good deeds, after the judgment of the world, determine rebirth : verily, they have their reward. "And ye, Brethren," says Gautama, "learn by the parable of the raft that ye must put away good conditions, not to speak of bad.'* The good is but the raft that carries us across the dangerous sea; he that would land upon the farther shore must leave the raft when it touches the strand. To realize this truth however detracts in no way from a realization of the present value of the raft. This is a * Religion of Eternity ' the Brahmanical ni- vritti marga and as such could be legitimately spoken of as anti-social, if it were in the least degree likely or had it been contemplated that it should or could be adopted in its entirety by all. Such religions, while they embody the highest truth to which mankind has attained, are only to be criticized as puritanical in so far as their followers seek to impose an ascetic regime (rather than one of temperance) on all alike ; in so far as their view of art is exclusively hedonistic; and their view of worship and ritual wholly unsympathetic. There is much to be said for the Brahmanical doctrine of the social debt, and for the view that a man should retire from the world only late in life, and only after taking due part in the life of the world. Nevertheless we must affirm the conviction that the renunciation of the world, at any moment, by those who experience the vocation to asceticism, is entirely justifiable, if the vocation be real. It is, further, a posi- tive social and moral advantage to the community that a certain number of its finest minds, leading a life that may be called sheltered, should remain unattached to social activities and unbound by social ties. Too much stress 128 Ethics is laid upon ' utility * in communities where neither gieux nor women are * protected/ And notwithstanding that it is not the purpose of the hermit to establish order in the world, let us remember that the onlooker sees most of the game ; it is not without reason that it has become an established tradition of the East that the ruler should be guided by the sage. The example of asceticism, moreover, where this asceticism is natural and effortless, provides a useful corrective to luxury; where voluntary- poverty is highly respected, some part of the suffering involved in ordinary poverty is taken away. To this day, the Indian Brahman ideal of plain living and social discipline strongly influences the manners and customs of all other castes; and the same result is attained by Buddhist monasticism in Burma, where it is customary, not merely for life ascetics, for all men of whatever calling, to spend a shorter or longer time within the fold of the Order. Most likely the root of the objection which many feel for monastic ideals of the Buddhist type is to be found in the ' selfishness ' of their aim, or to put the matter in another way, in the laying of stress on Knowledge, rather than Love. But let us remember that most and maybe all of our * unselfishness * is a delusion. No one can grow for another not one. The gift is to the giver^ and comes back most to him it cannot fail, And no man understands any greatness or goodness but his own> or the indication of his own. Let us also remember that pity no more could de, if all were as happy as ye: and just this happiness is promised to all who are prepared to relinquish desire, resentment, 129 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism and sentimentality. We must not forget that it was a recognized duty of the Brethren, and sometimes of the Sisters, to preach the Dhamma; and who will put forward the assertion that man shall live by bread alone ? Accord- ing to the Edict of Asoka, "There is no such almsgiving as is the almsgiving of the Dhamma." This was equally theview of so practical a Western mind as Cromwell's, whose first extant letter (as Mr Vincent Smith has pointed out) supplies a near parallel to the saying of Asoka just quoted : "Building of hospitals," he writes, "provides for men's bodies; to build temples is judged a work of piety; but they that procure spiritual food, they that build up spiritual temples, they are the men truly charitable, truly pious." It is most likely that the earliest Buddhism had no other moral code than that of the mental and moral discipline appointed for those who renounced the world and entered the Paths. The following Ten Commandments are those which are binding upon the Brethren : To avoid (i) the destruction of life, (2) theft, (3) un- chastity, (4) lying, (5) the use of intoxicating liquors, (6) eating between meals, (7) attending secular entertain- ments, (8) use of unguents and jewellery, (9) the use of high or luxurious beds, and (10) the handling of money. Those who attached themselves to the teaching of the Brethren, but remained laymen, were required to obey the first five of these injunctions all of which, it will be noticed, are of a negative character; but in the case of laymen, the third commandment is taken to mean only the avoidance of adultery. Practically all these rules are taken over from Brahmanic sources. This is more particularly evident in other passages of the canonical books where lay morality is expounded in greater detail. When matters are referred 130 Ethics to Gautama for his decision, or to the Brethren, the deci- sion given evidently accords with current public opinion ; marriage and family life are not directly attacked, it is merely pointed out that the secular life does not lead to emancipation from rebirth and suffering. 1 We have indeed in some books a detailed exposition of the mutual duties of children and parents, man and wife, master and servant. These injunctions lay down just those duties which are acknowledged in the Brahmanical works, and indicate a blameless mode of life, where special stress is laid on not injuring others, support of parents, and the giving of alms to the Brethren. This is the next best condition to that of the Wanderer, who is a member of the Order, and * homeless. 5 The duties of laymen are set forth in the Sigalavada Sutta under six heads : parents should restrain their children from vice, train them in virtue, have them taught arts and sciences, provide them with suitable wives or husbands, and give them their inheritance: children should support those who have supported them, perform family duties, guard their parents* property, make themselves worthy to be their heirs, and finally honour their memory. Pupils should honour their teachers by rising in their presence, by ministering to them, by obeying them, by supplying their wants, and by attention to instruction ; the teacher should show affection 1 But the superiority of the homeless life is again and again emphasized, c.g. "Full of hindrances is the household life, a path defiled by passion : free as air is the path of him who has renounced all worldly things. How difficult it is for the man who dwells at home to live the higher life in all its fulness, in all its purity, in all its bright perfection J Let me then cut off my hair and beard, let me clothe myself in the orange-coloured robes, and let me go forth from a household life into the homeless state." Tevifja Sutla. " It is easy to obtain righteous- ness in the forest, but not so for a householder," -Jatakamala ofArya xxxii. Buddha &P the Gospel of Buddhism for his pupils by training them in all that is good, teaching them to hold knowledge fast, instructing them in science and lore, speaking well of them, and by guarding them from danger. The husband should treat his wife with respect and kindness, be faithful to her, cause her to be honoured by others, and give her suitable clothes and jewels : she should order the household duly, be hospitable to kinsmen and friends, be chaste and thrifty, and in all matters exhibit skill and diligence. A man should minister to his friends by presents, courteous speech, promote their interests, treat them as equals, and share with them his prosperity; they should watch over him when he is off his guard, protect his property when he is careless, offer him a refuge in danger, adhere to him in misfortune, and show kindness to his family. The master should care for his dependents by apportioning their work according to their strength, giving suitable food and wages, tending them in sickness, sharing with them unusual delicacies, and giving them occasional holidays; they should rise before him, retire later to rest, be content with what is given them, work cheerfully and well, and speak well of him. A layman should minister to Bhikkhus and to Brahmans by affection in thought, word, and deed, by giving them a ready welcome, and by supplying their temporal needs ; and they should dissuade him from vice, exhort him to virtue, feel kindly to him, instruct him in religion, clear up his doubts, and point the way to heaven. * * And by thus acting the six airts (N.,S.,E.,W., Zenith, and Nadir) are preserved in peace and free from danger." We may also remark of the Brethren and Sisters, that though the practice of good works is by no means enjoined, they were constantly engaged with what we should now call moral education, and to a considerable 132 Ethics extent, and more so in later times, with education and learning in general. On the whole, it can hardly be controverted that Buddhist monasticism has been a true benefit to every country where it has been introduced, and that in India also Buddhism as a whole contributed valuable and specific elements to the permanent improve- ment of current standards of social ethics. It will be a useful commentary on the present section to append the following quotation descriptive of popular morality in Buddhist Ceylon, where the social influence of early Buddhism may fairly be credited with a con- siderable part of popular culture : "There is annually a gathering from all parts of the Island at Anuradhapura to visit what are called sacred places. I suppose about 20,000 people come here, remain for a few days, and then leave. There are no houses for their reception, but under the grand umbrage of trees of our park-like environs they erect their little booths and picnic in the open air. As the height of the festival approaches, the place becomes instinct with life ; and when there is no room left to camp in, the later comers unceremoniously take possession of the verandas of the public buildings. So orderly is their conduct, however, that no one thinks of disturbing them. The old Kacceri (Government Office) stands, a detached building not far from the bazaar, and about one-eighth of a mile from the Assistant- Agent's house. Till lately the treasure used to be lodged in a little iron box that a few men could easily run away with, guarded by three native treasury watchers. There lay this sum of money, year after year, at the mercy of any six men who chose to run with it into the neighbouring jungle once in detection was almost impossible and yet no one ever 133 Buddha ftP the Gospel of Buddhism supposed the attempt would be made. These 20,000 men from all parts of the country come and go annually without a single policeman being here; and, as the Magistrate of the district, I can only say that any to surpass their decorum and sobriety of conduct it is impossible to conceive. Such a thing as a row is unheard of." Report of the Government Agent, Anuradhapura, Ceylon, 1870. To this we may add the testimony of Knox, who was a prisoner in the interior of Ceylon late in the seventeenth century. He says that the proverb, Take a ploughman from the plough, and wash off his dirt, and he is fit to rule a kingdom, "was spoken of the people of Cande Uda . . . because of the civility, understanding, and gravity of the poorest among them." Their ordinary ploughmen, he adds, and husbandmen, " do speak elegantly, and are full of complement. And there is no difference between the ability and speech of a Countryman and a Courtier." But perhaps the best idea of the ethical consequences of Buddhist modes of thought will be gathered from the following Japanese criticism of Western Industrialism, originally published in the Japan Daily Mail (1890) by Viscount Torio, who was deeply versed in Buddhist philosophy, and also held high rank in the Japanese army : "Order or disorder in a nation does not depend upon something that falls from the sky or rises from the earth. It is determined by the disposition of the people. The pivot on which the public disposition turns is the point where public and private motives separate. If the people be influenced chiefly by public considerations, order is assured; if by private, disorder is inevitable. Public considerations are those that prompt the proper observ- ance of duties. . . . Private considerations are those 134 Ethics suggested by selfish motives, ... To regard our family affairs with all the interest due to our family and our national affairs with all the interest due to the nation, this is to fitly discharge our duty, and to be guided by public considerations. . . . Selfishness is born in every man; to indulge it freely is to become a beast Therefore it is that Sages preach the principles of duty and propriety, justice and morality, providing restraints for private aims and encouragement for public spirit . . . What we know of Western civilization is that it struggles on through long centuries in a confused condition, and finally attained a state of some order; but that even this order, not being based upon such principles as those of the natural and immutable relations between sovereign and subject, parent and child, with all their correspond- ing rights and duties, is liable to constant change, according to the growth of human ambitions and human aims. Admirably suited to persons whose actions are controlled by selfish ambition, the adoption of this system in Japan is naturally sought by a certain class of politicians. From a superficial point of view, the Occidental form of society is very attractive, inasmuch as being the outcome of a free development of human desires from ancient times, it represents the very extreme of luxury and extravagance. Briefly speaking, the state of things obtaining in the West is based upon the free play of human selfishness, and can only be reached by giving full sway to that quality. Social disturbances are little heeded in the Occident; yet they are at once the evidences and the factors of the present evil state of affairs. ... In the Orient, from ancient times, national government has been based on benevolence, and directed to securing the welfare and happiness of the people. No 135 Buddha &P the Gospel of Buddhism political creed has ever held that intellectual strength should be cultivated for the purpose of exploiting inferiority and ignorance. . . . Now, to satisfy the needs of one luxurious man, the toil of a thousand is needed. Surely it is monstrous that those who owe to labour the pleasures suggested by their civilization should forget what they owe to the labourer, and treat him as if he were not a fellow being. But civilization, according to the Occident, serves only to satisfy men of large desires. It is of no benefit to the masses, but is simply a system under which ambitions compete to establish their aims. . . . That the Occidental system is gravely disturbing to the order and peace of a country is seen by men who have eyes, and heard by men who have ears. The future of Japan under such a system fills us with anxiety. A system based on the principle that ethics and religion are made to serve human ambition naturally accords with the wishes of selfish individuals; and such theories as those embodied in the modern formula of liberty and equality annihilate the established relations of society, and outrage decorum and propriety. . . . Absolute equality and absolute liberty being un- attainable, the limits prescribed by right and duty are supposed to be set. But as each person seeks to have as much right and to be burdened with as little duty as possible, the results are endless disputes and legal con- tentions. ... It is plain that if the mutual rights of men and their status are made to depend on degrees of wealth, the majority of the people, being without wealth, must fail to establish their rights ; whereas the minority who are wealthy will assert their rights, and, under society's sanction, will exact oppressive duties from the poor, neglecting the dictates of humanity and 136 Conscience benevolence. The adoption of these principles of liberty and equality in Japan would vitiate the good and peaceful customs of our country, render the general disposition of the people harsh and unfeeling, and prove finally a source of calamity to the masses. . . . Though at first sight Occi- dental civilization presents an attractive appearance, adapted as it is to the gratification of selfish desires, yet, since its basis is the hypothesis that men's wishes con- stitute natural laws, it must ultimately end in disappoint- ment and demoralization. . . . Occidental nations have become what they are after passing through conflicts and vicissitudes of the most serious kind. . . . Perpetual disturbance is their doom. Peaceful equality can never be attained until built up among the ruins of annihilated Western States and the ashes of extinct Western peoples." 1 CONSCIENCE It has often been objected as against Buddhism that while its moral code is admirable, it provides no sanction, or no sufficient sanctions, for morality. And we may say at once, that since the * individual * does not exist, there can be no question of reward or punishment for the individual, and therefore there is no sanction for morality based on reward or punishment affecting the individual in the future. Neither does Buddhism name any God from whom have proceeded Tables of the Law invested with supernatural authority. The true Buddhist, how- ever, does not need to be coerced by hopes of heaven or fears of hell ; nor can he imagine a higher sanction than that of reason (Truth). 8 1 Lafcadio Hearn, Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan, (1905) vol. ii, p. 676 f. 2 Those who do not admit the sufficiency of reason cannot be called Buddhists ; at the same time it cannot be argued by such a priori^ that 137 Buddha ^f the Gospel of Buddhism Since Buddhism is essentially a practical system, psycho- logical and ethical, rather than philosophical or religious, it may very justly demand to be judged by its fruits, and it has no need to fear comparisons. At the same time it will throw some light on Buddhist thought if we inquire what in Buddhism corresponds to * conscience. 5 Conscience to define the English word is an internal moral judgment upon the motives and actions of the individual, and as such is an undeniable fact of consciousness ; it automatically and instantly refers all activities to a moral standard. This moral standard in a theistic system like the old Semitic is formulated in a series of commandments : in an atheistic system of self- assertion such as is implicitly acknowledged in competitive societies (modern Industrialism)' there exist similar com- mandments, but admittedly man-made and recorded in legal codes; he who breaks no laws has there a good conscience. In idealistic systems such as that of Jesus, the moral standard is resumed in the principle, to love one's neighbour as oneself, a position which the monist justifies by adding, for thy neighbour is thyself indeed. Thus in its lowest form, conscience, which is already recognizable in certain of the lower animals, consists in little more than the fear of punishment, which, however, for true Buddhists, reason may not be a sufficient sanction. As said by C. A. F. Rhys Davids (Psalms of the Sisters, p. xxix), "are we sure we have gauged the working of all human hearts and every touch to which they will respond?" It is noteworthy that in the thirty-four edicts of Asoka advocating moral behaviour, there is only one allusion to the word of the Buddha as such ; the only sanction, in the sense of motive for morality, is the welfare of the individual and the common welfare. The idea of promoting the welfare of all beings is deeply rooted in Indian sentiment, and an activity devoted to that end would scarcely have seemed to require a further motive, whether to Buddhist or Brahman. 138 Conscience may soon develop into a sense of c sin * which does not altogether depend on fear, but is largely a matter of con- vention. Another and higher aspect of conscience is based on reason, the knowledge of cause and effect a full realization that evil actions must sooner or later recoil on the doer, and the reflection, on the other hand, that all beings are like-natured, and therefore it must be right to do to others as one would have them do to oneself. A third and still higher form of conscience arises from the intuition (O.E. inwif) of identity : a bad conscience then signifies a consciousness of selfish motive equivalent to a denial of the inner relation of unity to which the con- sqience is witness. The Buddhist sati, mindfulness or recollectiveness, is to be identified with the conscience based on reason. It works not so much through the fear of consequence, as by a sense of the futility of admitting hindrances to spiritual progress. He that is recollected reminds himself of natural law, viz. the coming-to-be as the result of a cause, and the passing-away-again, of all phenomena, physical or mental. To act as if this actual fact of Becoming were not a fact, would be foolish, sentimental, wrong. Whoever realizes, "all existences are non-ego," he cannot act from selfish motives, for he knows no self. To many Western minds it may appear that to be ever mindful of impermanence cannot be a sufficient sanction for morality. Nor can it be pretended that such a sanction would or does suffice for all. Those, for example perhaps the majority of professing Buddhists who desire a heaven to be readied after death, perform meritorious actions in order to attain it. But for those who understand the true significance of Nibbana, ethical behaviour is derived from a categorical inner imperative, " because of 139 Buddha @f the Gospel of Buddhism Nibbana." * Since the highest good is a state of mind (the state of mind of the Arahat, who is delivered from desire, resentment, and glamour), every ethical activity must be judged as a means to the attainment of that state. A bad conscience, then, a state of sin, would be described by a Buddhist as a state of mind contrary to Nibbana. It may seem that " Because of Nibbana ** is not a sufficient ethical motif. In the same way even the true Buddhist might fail to understand the force of the Christian " Thy will be done," " Thy way, not mine, O Lord," or of the resignation signified in * Islam.' Yet all these refer to one and the same inner experience, of which we are reminded by the Sufi, when he says : " Whoso hath not surrendered will, no will hath he." Most probably the force of these statements can never be made fully apparent to those who have not yet in their own consciousness experienced at least the beginning of the turning of the personal will from affirmation to denial. But just in so far as a man allows his thoughts and actions to be determined by impersonal motive Anatta or Nibbana motive, as a Buddhist might say so far he begins to taste of a peace that passes understanding. It is this peace which lies at the heart of all religion, and Buddhism may well claim that the principle " Because of Nibbana " suffices to settle in the affirmative the question whether or not the system of Gautama is properly described as a religion (though this expression suggests rather a Mahayana than an early mode of thought). 1 Shwe Zan Aung, Buddhist Review, iii, 2, p, 107. Cf. Clive Bell, Arty ii> iii, and G* E. Moore, Prindpia Ethica. Cf. Shikshasamuccaya of Shanti Deva, vv. 21, 23: "Make thy merit pure by deeds full of the spirit of tenderness and the Void. . . . Increase of enjoyment is from almsgiving full of the spirit of tenderness and the Void: 9 140 Spiritual Exercises That aspect of conscience which inhibits wrong activities it will be remembered that most of the early Buddhist commandments are negative is, then, sati or recollected- ness. There is, however, another side to conscience which impels the individual not merely to refrain from injuring others, but to expend himself to their advantage, in accordance with the principle that Love can never be idle : this is spoken of, in Mahayana Buddhism, as the Bodhi-citta, or Heart of Enlightenment. It differs from sati chiefly in its spontaneity ; it does not arise from reflection, but from the harmony of the individual will with the wisdom and activity of the Buddhas. This con- dition is sometimes spoken of in Western books of edifi- cation as a state of grace, or more popularly as the state of ' being in tune with the Infinite/ But a very excellent rendering of ' bodhi-citta ' may be found in Feltham's 'shoot of everlastingnesse * : x this phrase is the more appropriate, because the awakening of the bodhi-citta is poetically represented in Buddhist literature as the open- ing of the lotus of the heart. The two states of mind which in Buddhism correspond to the Western idea of conscience, are then, recollectedness> and love i and it is from these conditions that there naturally flow all those conceptions of the good which are defined at length in the Buddhist passages on ethics. VII. SPIRITUAL EXERCISES A regular part of the daily work of the members of the Sangha whether Brethren or Sisters consisted in the practice of certain contemplations. These stations of 1 "The Conscience, the Character of a God stampt in it, and the Apprehension of Eternity doe all prove it a shoot of werlastingnesse? Feltham's Resolves. 141 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism meditation differ only in minor details from those which are regularly practised by Indian ascetics of other orders. With characteristic systematization, these modes of training heart and mind are often spoken of as forty- four in number. How essentially self-educational is the purpose of these stations of meditation appears from the fact that certain ones are appointed for persons of one temperament, and certain others for those of other tem- peraments, I have spoken of these meditations delibe- rately as ' work/ because it is important to understand that we do not speak here of any simple matter such as day-dream or reverie, but of a severe system of mental training, founded on an elaborate psychology, and well calculated now by auto-suggestion, now by close atten- tion to produce the type of character aimed at. Training of the Heart The first meditations are of an ethical character, and in some respects may be compared to prayer. They consist in cherishing the moods (bhavanas) of loving-kindness, compassion, sympathy, and impartiality (metta, karuna> mudita, and upekkha). These are called the Four Illimit- able Sublime Moods (Brahmaviharas]. The meditation on Loving-kindness, for example, consists in the emphasis of this feeling, the active radiation of goodwill in all directions and toward all forms of life : and whoever will practise this one Buddhist exercise daily at a fixed hour, for a fixed time, and with entire attention, though he learn little else of Buddhism, may be judge for himself what is the development of character to which it tends. Perhaps we can best understand what the Four Sublime Moods really signify by considering their equivalents in the thought of a modern. When Walt Whitman says : 142 Training of the Heart / do not ask you who you are, that is not important to me, You can do nothing and be nothing but what I will infold you, and When I give, I give myself, that is metta. When he says : / do not ask the wounded person how he feels, I myself become the wounded person, My hurts turn livid upon me as I lean on a cane and observe, that is karuna. When he says : / understand the large hearts of heroes, The courage of present times and all times. * . . / am the man, I suffered, I was there, that is mudita. When he says : Have you outstripped the rest? Are you the President ?* It is a trifle, they will more than arrive there every- one, and still pass on, that is upekkha. The purely intellectual character of upekkha, however (which as it were corrects and balances the three other Sublime Moods), is better explained perhaps by the Bhagavad Glta (v. 18) : " They that are pandits indeed, regard alike a wise and modest Brahman, a cow, an elephant, or even a dog or an outcaste." We are reminded 1 If for e President/ we read 'Indra' or 'Brahma' precisely the Presidents of the deva-world and of the whole Universe, holding office only for the time being we can understand these lines in a thoroughly Buddhist sense. 143 Buddha fef the Gospel of Buddhism of the sun that shines alike upon the evil and the good ; and Buddhism also knows of special meditations upon the elements^ e.g. upon the earth, which harbours no resentment, and is the Indian symbol of patience, or upon water, which becomes again transparent and clear, what- ever mud or filth is cast into it. The Buddhist would at all costs avoid sentimentality and partiality: Gautama, perhaps, had reflected, like Nietzsche, "Ah, where in the world have there been greater follies than with the pitiful?" With the Four Meditations just mentioned is associated another (asubha-bhavana)^ on " Foul things." This very different contemplation is appointed for those whose emotional nature is already active enough, but are on the other hand too readily moved by the thought or sight of physical beauty, or feel a pride in their own physical perfection. The object of this meditation is to impress on the mind that every living organism is subject to change and decay ; the practice consists in the contem- plation of human bones or half-decayed corpses, such as may be seen in an Indian burial-ground. It would be difficult to secure for this discipline the sympathy of modern minds. Nor does the method appear quite calculated to secure the desired end ; may it not rather enhance the value of the fleeting moment to reflect Such is the beauty of a maid- Like autumn leaves they fall and fade ? Not all the analytic lore of the physiologist makes him any the less susceptible to love. If we neglect, however, this purely monastic aspect of a rather futile endeavour to induce disgust by artificial means, and remember how 144 Training of the Heart Buddhist thought is always on guard to avoid senti- mentality, we may understand such a meditation as a corrective to the temperament which falls in love with all that is new and fair, and admires only such art as repre- sents the charms of youth and beauty. But it seems to be overlooked that physical beauty is in itself and so far a good. He that would go further must renounce indul- gence, not because that indulgence is bad, but because he has other and stronger desires. The true ascetic is not he who is such by a species of mental violence, 1 but he who is thinking of other things than passing goods. With regard to the purpose of these meditations: we may observe that they are not intended for ascetics only, but equally for laymen, and must have resulted in active deeds of compassion. Buddhist thought, however, is more concerned with states of mind than with direct injunctions to labour for others ; and the true purpose of the Four Sublime Moods is to correct the disposition of those who are ill-tempered and uncharitable. To overcome resentment is essential to all further progress ; but the Sublime Moods by themselves lead only to re- birth in the Brahma Heavens of Form. In the subsequent development toward Nibbana the Sublime Moods are overpast, since they are directed toward other persons, while the thought of the most advanced is directed only to Nibbana. For the realization of Nibbana there must be put away not only bad states of mind, but also good ones. The former lead to rebirth under painful conditions, the latter to rebirth under favour- able conditions; but neither constitutes the saving knowledge which gives emancipation. Buddha is made, 1 The saying of the poet, that " Desires suppressed breed pestilence," is confirmed by the researches of the psycho-analyst 145 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism in the Buddha-carita of Asvaghosha (vii, 25), to speak of these efforts as follows : " It is not the effort itself which I blame, which flinging aside the base pursues a high path of its own ; but the wise, by all this common toil, ought to attain that state in which nothing needs ever to be done again." Jhdna A further group of meditations consists of the Jhanas or Dhyanas strictly so-called; these, too, are disciplines of attention and abstraction almost identical with those which are better known as belonging to Yoga. "Blessed art thou, therefore," says Behmen, "if thou canst stand still from self-thinking and self-willing, and canst stop the wheel of thy imagination and thy senses ; forasmuch as hereby thou mayst arrive at length to see the great Salvation of God, being made capable of all manner of divine sensations and heavenly communica- tions. Since it is nought indeed but thine own hearing and willing that do hinder thee." Just as the mystic seeks to*be abstracted from mental activity, in order the better to know the One Reality, in just the same way the Bud- dhist makes a practice of abstraction that he may be delivered from self-thinkingi and may come to know things as they really are. If we omit the two words * of God* in the above quotation, or remember that God is No-thing, it will exactly explain the character and ultimate purpose of the Buddhist Jhanas. One series of these consists in meditation upon certain set objects for example, a circle of smooth earth in such a way as to separate oneself from all appetite or im- pulse in connexion with them. This exercise recalls the disinterestedness of aesthetic contemplation, where the 146 The Buddha seated in samadhi, contemplation, hands in dhyana mudra, posture of meditation. (Anuradhapura Museum, Ceylon, Dolomite: over life size.) concentration on objects, but rather from them. It is a rigid discipline to be undertaken only with the help of a guru. The jhanas are the means and not the end; when all these degrees, stages or_stations of contemplation have been mastered then the arhat can practice samadhi at will. Only the adept can extract from this material body this self, that Self as one draws an arrow from its sheath, a sword from its scabbard, or as the snake draws itself from itself (its slough). (Reference p. 101, 117 note 1.) Jhana spectator " is from himself set free" ; the Buddhist Jhana aims to attain the same result in a more mechanical way. This contemplation prepares the way for higher things, and by itself leads to favourable rebirth in the Heaven of Ideal Form (rupalokd). The resulting trance is divided into four or five phases. A further series, which secure rebirth in the Heaven of No-form (arfcpaloka), consists in the successive realization of the stations of the Infinity of Space, of the Infinity of Intellection, of Emptiness, and of Neither-consciousness- nor-unconsciousness. In these exercises the aspirant experiences, as it were, a foretaste of the worlds of re- becoming to which his character will lead after death; for the moment, indeed, he already enters those worlds. These exercises, however, do not lead directly and imme- diately to Nibbana, but only to re-becoming in the more ideal conditions of those higher other-worlds. Beyond these stations there remained the cultivation of * thought engaged upon the world beyond' (lokuttaram tit tarn). The method hardly differs from what has been last described, but is without thought or desire of any other world, whether of form or formless, and is pursued solely with the view to achieving perfection of insight here and now. For this reason, notwithstanding the similarity of method, the Buddhist authors draw a sharp distinction between the Jhana which leads to Nibbana directly, and those Jhanas which merely lead to rebirth in the Brahma Heavens of Form or No-form. The term Samadhi must also be mentioned, originally indicating any profound pious meditation or concentration " * citfekaggata? the one-pointed state of the mind, is a synonym for samadhi , . . this samadhi, which is called self-collectedness, has as its characteristic mark the Buddha v!P the Gospel of Buddhism absence of wandering, of distraction . . . and as its concomitants, calmness, or wisdom . . . and ease. 55 * Samadhi is also divided under many separate classes, e.g. the Empty (sunfiata), the Signless (animitta), and the Aimless (appanihita), corresponding to the three phases of Vimutti similarly characterized. VIII. CONSOLATION Nothing is more characteristic of Gautama's thought than the form of the consolation which it offers to the suffering individual. There is no promise of future compensation, as of a reunion in heaven, but there is reference to the universality of suffering ; the individual is led to regard his sorrow, not as * his own, 5 but as world sorrow, welt- schmerz, inseparable from life itself; all sorrow is self- inflicted, inherent in the conceit of an I. Consolation is to be found in the * knowledge of things as they really are. 5 "The pilgrimage of beings (Samsara), my disciples, 55 says Gautama, " has its beginning in eternity. No open- ing (first cause) can be discovered, whence proceeding, creatures fettered by a thirst for being, stray and wander. What think ye, disciples, which is more, the water which is in the four great oceans, or the tears which have flowed from you and have been shed by you, while ye strayed and wandered on this long pilgrimage, and sorrowed and wept, because that was your portion which ye abhorred and that which ye loved was not your portion ? 55 2 Not only has each in himself this long inheritance of suffering, but all have experienced and still experience the same. It is related that there came a mother, GotamI the Slender, to 1 Commentary on the Dhamma-Sangant, 2 Samyutta Nikaya, ii, 1479. 148 Consolation Gautama, having lost her only son, while yet a child. Bewildered by her grief, she set the child's dead body on her hip and went from door to door crying, " Give me medicine for my child ! " When she came to Gautama, he answered, " Go into the town, bring me a little mus- tard-seed from any house where no man hath yet died." She went ; but there was no family where death had never entered. At last, going from house to house in vain, she came to herself, and thought, "This will be the same throughout the city ... it is the Law, that all things pass away." So saying, she returned to the master; and when he asked for the seed, she said, " Wrought is the work, lord, of the little mustard. Give thou me confirma- tion." At that time she entered the First Path, and it was not long before she attained to Arahatta. In another place, the Buddhist nun Patacara is represented as consoling many bereaved mothers of the city in the following words : Weep not, for such is here the life of man. Unasked he came, unbidden went he hence. Lo ! ask thyself again whence came thy son To bide on earth this little breathing space ? By one way come and by another gone, . . . So hither and so hence why should ye weep ? l And these mothers also, it is recorded, were moved to leave the world ; and practising as sisters the mental and moral discipline of the Order, they shortly attained to Arahatta and the ending of grief. 1 C A. F. Rhys Davids, Psalms of the Sisters, p. 78. Observe that Patacara's consolation diffens little from that of Sri Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita (ii, 27) : "For to the bom, sure is death, to the dead, sure is birth : so for an issue that may not be escaped thou dost not well to sorrow." Cp. Plato, Phaedo, 7oD, 770. 149 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism Very significant also is the consolation which the Buddha offers to his_disciples at the time of his own death, 1 " Enough, Ananda 1 do not let yourself be troubled ; do not weep! Have I not already, on former occasions, told you that it is in the very nature of all things most near and dear unto us that we must divide ourselves from them ? How, then, Ananda, can this be possible whereas anything whatever born, brought into being, and organized, contains within itself the inherent necessity of dissolution how, then, can this be possible, that such a being should not be dissolved ? No such condition can exist ! " It will be remembered that Ananda, though in a measure the favourite disciple of Buddha, was also spiritually the youngest, the most backward, and did not attain to Arahatta until after the death of the Buddha. And so when that death takes place, he is represented as overcome by grief, and exclaiming: Then was the terror! Then stood the hair on end I When he endowed with every grace The supreme Buddha died! and " of those of the Brethren who were not yet free from the passions, some stretched their arms and wept, and some fell headlong on the ground, rolling to and fro in anguish at the thought: 'Too soon has the Exalted One died ! Too soon has the Happy One passed away ! Too soon has the Light gone out in the world 1 J But those of the Brethren who were free from the passions bore their grief collected and composed at the thought : * Impermanent are all component things I How is it possible that (they 1 Compare with this the death-bed consolation of King Dutthag^mani, quoted p. 300, below, from the JfaAavamsa, 150 The Order should not be dissolved)? 5 " The venerable Anuruddha, one who had already attained, and was an Arahat, does not feel the personal and passionate grief which distresses Ananda, and he says : When he who from all craving want was free Who to Nirvana's tranquil state had reached When the great sage finished his span of life No gasping struggle vexed that steadfast heart ! All resolute^ and with unshaken mind He calmly triumphed o* er the pain of death. E*en as a bright flame dies away, so was The last emancipation of his heart. While Sakka, the king of the gods of heaven, under Brahma, utters the famous lines : They're transient all, each beings parts and powers* Growth is their very nature^ and decay , They are produced, they are dissolved again : To bring them all into subjection that is bliss. IX. THE ORDER The central institution of Hmayana Buddhism is the Sangha, the 'Company* of Brethren, the men, and in smaller number the women, who left the world to walk on the Path that leads to Arahatta, the attainment of Nibbana. Gautama himself, together with his disciples, belonged to the class of reljgieux> then well-known as * Wanderers' (Paribbajakas), who are to be distinguished from the forest-dwelling hermits ( Vanaprasthas). The Wanderers travelled about singly or in bands, or took up their residence for a time in the groves or buildings set apart for their use by good laymen. Thus we hear of the Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism wandering mendicant Potthapada, who on a certain occa- sion " was dwelling at the hall put up in Queen Mallika's Park for the discussion of systems of opinion, the hall set round with a row of Tinduka trees, and known by the name of 'The HalL' And there was with him a great following of mendicants; to wit, three hundred mendicants/* 1 Such mendicants, or Bhikkkus (a term afterward coming to have a distinctively Buddhist significance) were often associated in companies, under the teaching of some leader, such as the Potthapada above mentioned; and we hear amongst others of the following orders with members of which Gautama at one time or another enters into argument : the Niganthas (or Jainas), led by Mahavlra ; the Ajivikas; the Gotamakas, followers most likely of Devadatta, the Buddha's schismatic and ill-minded cousin ; various Brahmanical groups, and many others of whose views we know little. The first of these groups developed like Buddhism into an Order and a religion, and has survived in India to the present day with an extensive literature and over a million adherents. The Rule adopted by one or the other group of Wanderers varied in detail, but always embraced a certain degree of asceticism (always including celibacy), combined with voluntary poverty. 1 T. W. Rhys Davids, Dialogues of the Buddha^ i, 224. Professor Rhys Davids adds the following note : " The very fact of the erection of such a place is another proof of the freedom of thought prevalent in the Eastern valley of the Ganges hi the sixth century B.C. Buddha- ghosha tells us that after c The Hall ' had been established, others near it had been built in honour of various famous teachers j but the group of buildings continued to be known as 'The Hall.' There Brahmans, Niganthas, Achelas, Paribbajakas, and other teachers met and ex- pounded, or discussed, their views," 152 Buddhist monk. (Chinese. North Ch'i Dynasty, 550-557 A.D. Hsiang Tang SstL 5'6" high. University Museum, Philadelphia.) Monk attendant holding a symbolic lotus bud. The Order We can now examine in greater detail the special Rule which was adopted in the Order founded by Gautama, and organized under his immediate guidance. We have already mentioned the Ten Commandments, or rather, Prohibitions, which must be observed by every member of the Order. The Brethren are also required to wear a monastic costume of yellow or orange cloth, made of torn pieces, sewn together so as to have no commercial value ; to seek their daily food as alms ; to abstain from food between meals at the appointed hours ; and generally, to maintain a decorous behaviour. But they are not re- quired to take any vow of life-long adhesion on the contrary, those who find they have no true vocation are encouraged to return to the world, where, if they cannot attain Arahatta in this life, they may yet aspire to a favour- able rebirth. Nor are the Brethren required to take any vow of obedience to superiors : all are equal, with due allow- ance for seniority, and degree of spiritual advancement : even in large monasteries, the head is merely primus inter pares. The Order constitutes thus a self-contained democracy, analogous to a guild or occupational caste. Discipline is maintained formally by the Order as a whole, acting upon the confession or proved fault of the erring Brother, and appointing, in bi-monthly convocation, a suitable penance ; the heaviest punishment, appointed for infringement of either of the Four Cardinal Sins (breach of the vow of chastity, theft, killing, and laying claim to miraculous powers), is expulsion from the Order; mention is also made in Asoka's edicts of expulsion or unfrocking of heretics or schismatics. An external check is also provided by public opinion, which neither in the days of Gautama, nor in modern Burma or Ceylon, would tolerate the mere pretence of a holy life. Thus, says Mr Fielding Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism Hall, in modern Burma "the supervision exercised by the people over their monks is most stringent. As long as the monks act as monks should, they are held in great honour, they are addressed by titles of great respect, they are supplied with all they want within the rules of the Wini ( Vinayd), they are the glory of the village. . . . Directly he breaks his laws, his holiness is gone. The villagers will have none such as he. They will hunt him out of the village, they will refuse him food, they will make him a byword, a scorn.'* The monastery is also in many cases the village school; * and in Burma it is the custom for almost every young man to take the monastic vows for a short time, and to reside for that period within the monastery walls. This possibility of using the Order as a * Retreat * also explains how it was possible for Asoka to assume the monastic robes without finally relinquishing his throne. It is above all important to realize that the Buddhist Brother, Monk, Religious mendicant (Bhikkhu, the word in most general use), Wanderer, or however we speak of him, is not a priest. He does not belong to an apostolic succession, nor has he any power to save or condemn, to forgive sins or to administer sacraments ; he has no other 1 "All monasteries are schools." Fielding Hall, The Soul of a People. Of course, teaching is not an essential duty of the Brother, but a task voluntarily undertaken. Similar conditions prevailed, until recently, in Ceylon: ''Besides the relation in which the priests stand to their tenants as landlords, and the religious influence of their possession, they have other holds on the possession of the people. Their pansalas (monasteries) are the schools for village children, and the sons of even the superior headmen are very generally educated at them. They have also frequently some knowledge of medicine, and when this is the case they generally give the benefit of their advice gratuitously . . . their influence among the people is, in a social point of view, usefully employed." Ceylon, Service Tenures Commission Report^ 1872. v,j;-W tit<$T' a A'S S 8|f 1 -s^l- s - 1-1 v^ pj I fig'l Tolerance sanctity than attaches to his own good living. The care of a 'Buddhist temple is no essential part of his duties, though in most cases a temple is attached to every monastery, and is under the care of the Brethren, while village shrines have their incumbents whose livelihood is provided by the produce of lands dedicated to it. But this care of sacred places has no likeness to priestcraft, nor does the temple contain any sanctum which may not be approached as well by laymen as by Brethren. Each monk is permitted eight possessions only : the three robes, a waist cloth, an alms bowl, a razor, a needle, and a water-strainer. The modern Bhikkhu generally possesses in addition an umbrella and a few books, 1 but the handling of money is carefully avoided. Nevertheless the hardship of voluntary poverty is largely mitigated by the fact that the Order as such is permitted to receive gifts and en- dowments from laymen, a practice begun even in the time of the Buddha; later Buddhist monasteries became ex- tremely wealthy and are well furnished with residences for the Brethren. Even under these conditions the mode of life is extremely simple, and no one could accuse the monks of luxury. X. TOLERANCE India is the land of religious tolerance. There can be no doubt that Gautama and his disciples extended to those of other persuasions the same courtesy which he received. This is indicated not only by the general procedure adopted in the case of argument with opponents, but also in several amiable anecdotes. We read, for example, that Gautama converted at Vaisali a Licchavi nobleman, who had been 1 Writing was known, but books were not in general use when the order was founded : the basis of learning was what a man remembered. '55 Buddha fif the Gospel of Buddhism a follower of Mahavlra : but he advised him as follows : " For a long time, Siha, your house has been a place of refuge for the Niganthas (followers of Mahavlra, i.e. Jainas). Therefore you should consider it becoming that alms should still be given to them when they come to you." l Primitive Buddhism included eighteen various schools of thought, sometimes spoken of as sects or denominations ; according to another classification the number is twelve. Concerning these schools which would arise after his death, Gautama is said to have made the following pronounce- ment: "These schools will be the repositories of the twelve diversified fruits of my scriptures without priority or inferiority just as the taste of sea-water is everywhere the same or as the twelve sons of one man, all honest and true, so will be the exposition of my doctrine advo- cated by these schools." 2 If these are not the actual words of the Buddha, they testify at least to what the Buddhists at a later period considered that he might very well have said ; and this oympathetic position is also well illustrated in practice, for Hiouen Tsang in the sixth century found representatives of all the eighteen sects living side by side in a single monastery without dissension. The traditional tolerance of Indian kings, who extend their sup- port to all sects alike, is also well seen in the case of Asoka, who patronized even the Ajivikas, whose doctrines are so often denounced by Gautama as definitely false. Certain passages in the Edicts treat of tolerance as follows : "His Sacred and Gracious Majesty the King does reverence to men of all sects, whether ascetics or house- holders, by gifts and various forms of reverence. "His Sacred Majesty, however, cares not so much for gifts or external reverence as that there should be a 1 Mahavagga, vi, 31. 2 Beal, Ind. Ant., ix, 1880, p. 300. '56 S H rt t:S till! pfe 5 filtfj < g< 1/3*8 p .s5^ Tolerance growth of the essence of the matter in all sects. The growth of the essence of the matter assumes various forms, but the root of it is restraint of speech, to wit, a man must not do reverence to his own sect or disparage that of another man without reason. Depreciation should be for specific reasons only, because the sects of other people all deserve reverence for one reason or another . . . he who does reverence to his own sect while disparaging the sects of others wholly from attachment to his own, with intent to enhance the splendour of his own sect, in reality by such conduct inflicts the severest injury on his own sect. 1 Concord, therefore, is meritorious, to wit, hearkening and hearkening willingly to the Law of Piety as accepted by other people. For this is the desire of His Sacred Majesty that all sects should hear much teaching and hold sound doctrine." 1 He, in the words of Schopenhauer, who (( labours carefully to prove that the dogmas of the foreign belief do not agree with those of his own, to explain that not only they do not say the same, but certainly do not mean the same as his." With that he fancies in his simplicity that he has proved the falsity of the doctrines of the alien belief. It really never occurs to him to ask the question which of the two is right I was once acquainted with an ardent English supporter of foreign missions who informed me that a Hindu was a Buddhist who worshipped Muhammad. Asoka's view of tolerance is that which has always prevailed in India. Compare "Let every man, so far as in him lieth, help the reading of the scriptures, whether those of his own church or those of another h (Bhakta-kalpadruma of Pratapa Simha, 1866). The only true missionary is he who brings to the support of the scriptures of others, that which he finds in his own books. The more one knows of various beliefs, the more impossible it becomes to distinguish one from another; and indeed no religion could be true which did not imply the same which every other religion implies. " These are really the thoughts of all men in all ages and lands, they are not original with me. If they are not yours as much as mine, they are nothing, or next to nothing." Walt Whitman. 157 Buddha ftP the Gospel of Buddhism It must not, however, be supposed that early Buddhists extended the idea of tolerance so far as to believe that it was possible to attain salvation otherwise than through the Doctrine and Discipline expressly taught by Gautama. Heresy, on the contrary, is regarded as a damnable sin, to be expiated in the purgatories. The Ajlvikas are regarded as particularly impious, and Gautama being asked whether any such can attain to heaven after death to say nothing of Nibbana replies : " In the ninety-one seons, O Vatsya, which I recall, I remember but one single Ajivika who attained tcr heaven and he acknowledged the truth of kamma and the efficacy of works." x "Void are the systems of other teachers," says Gautama, "void of true saints," 2 a view that is echoed by Brother Nagita as follows : Outside our Order many others &e, who teach A path) never, Like this one* to Nibbana leading? Nor was free thinking actually tolerated within the order. The whole object of the Buddhist Councils, as well as of the final writing down of the Pali canon, was to fix the true doctrine and eradicate the false. Heretical brethren were excommunicated ; the best evidence of this appears in certain of the Edicts of Asoka, who lays down that the Way of the Church must not be departed from, and that those who break the unity of the Church shall be unfrocked, and must dwell apart from the Brethren. 4 It is quite 1 Majjhima Nikaya, p. 483. 2 Mahaparinibbana Sutta {Dialogues of the Buddha, ii, 152). Cf. also, " For all beings salvation is only to be found in Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha." Khuddakapatka. 3 Psalms of the Brethren, No. Ixxxvi (Nagita). 4 Mr. R. F. Johnston is therefore not quite correct in saying that expulsion from monkhood is never inflicted for free thought or in- fidelity. Buddhist China, p. 308. 158 Women clear that the early Buddhists claimed not merely to possess the truth, but to possess a monopoly of truth. The Mahayana is more catholic. The fundamental doctrine of Convenient Means (upaya) of itself implies the necessary variety of external form and formula which intuition or revelation must assume. We therefore read characteristically that " Perceiving an incarnation of the Dharmakaya in every spiritual leader regardless of his nationality and professed creed, Mahayanists recognize a Buddha in Socrates, Mohammad, Jesus, Francis of Assisi, Confucius, Laotze, and many others." * The Mahayana is indeed in principle as eclectic as Hinduism, and could easily assimilate to itself any foreign religious system as a new sect. For "the Conquerors are masters of various and manifold means whereby the Tathagata reveals the supreme light to the world of gods and men, means adapted to their temperament and prejudices." 2 All past and all future Buddhas teach the same saving knowledge in the manner best suited to the time and place of their appearance. XI. WOMEN " Reverend Sir, have you seen a woman pass this way ?" And the elder said: "Was it a woman, or a man That passed this way? I cannot tell. But this I know, a set of bones Is travelling upon this road." Visuddhi Magga> ch. i. A good number of the Jatakas or Birth-stories of Gautama are designed to point the moral of feminine iniquity. 1 Suzuki, Outlines of Mahayana Buddhism^ p. 63. 8 Saddharmapundanka Sutra, ii, 36 and 73. 159 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism " Unfathomably deep, like a fish's course in the water," they say, " is the character of women, robbers with many artifices, with whom truth is hard to find, to whom a lie is like the truth and the truth is like a lie. . . . No heed should be paid either to their likes or to their dislikes*" The doctrine of Gautama is monastic, as his temperament is unemotional In the words of Oldenberg, " Was it possible for a mind like Buddha, who in the severe deter- mination of renunciation had torn himself away from all that is attractive and lovely in this world, was he given the faculty, to understand and to value woman's nature ? " We must understand that the Early Buddhist want of sympathy with woman is not an unique phenomenon, but rather one that is typical of monastic sentiment all the world over. It is based on fear. For of all the snares of the senses which Ignorance sets before the unwary, the most insidious, the most dangerous, the most attractive, is woman. "Master/* says Ananda, "how shall we behave before women?" "You should shun their gaze, Ananda." " But if we see them, master, what then are we to do ? " " Not speak to them, Ananda." " But if we do speak to them, what then?" "Then you must watch over yourselves, Ananda." To fall in love is a form of Moha, infatuation : and just as the monastic view of art takes note only of its sensuous elements, so the monastic view of woman and the love of woman takes into account none but the physical factors. To compare Nibbana as the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad compares the bliss of Atman- intuition to the self-forgetting happiness of earthly lovers, locked in each other's arms, would be for Buddhist thought a bitter mockery. No less remote from Buddhist 160 Women sentiment is the view of Western chivalry which sees in woman a guiding star, or that of Vaishnava or Platonic idealism which finds in the adoration of the individual an education to the love of all. We need not deny that the position of Gautama is from a certain point of view just It is scarcely to be gainsaid that woman is nearer to the world than man; and sexual differentiation is one of those things which are * not so, not so* in Nirvana. We have only to recognize that Gautama had no conception of a moral duty to provide for the continuance of the race, such as is implied in the later Brahmanical doctrine of the debt to the ancestors. He called on men and women alike to root up the infernal grove, to abandon the sexual nature, and to put on spiritual manhood ; for those not yet prepared for this change, he felt such compassion as a gentle spirit may feel for those who suffer and whose suffering is the result of their own infatuation. Gautama's favourite and spiritually youngest disciple Ananda is frequently represented as advocating the cause of woman. When the question of the admission of women to the Order in effect a claim to the rights of women not altogether unlike that of the moderns was raised, Ananda, already three times refused, finally asks: " Are women competent, Reverend Sir, if they retire from the household life to the houseless one, under the doctrine and discipline announced by the Tathagata, to attain to the fruit of conversion, to attain to the fruit of once- returning, to attain to the fruit of never-returning, to attain to Arahatta?" Gautama cannot deny their competence; in response to Ananda's further pleas he admits women to the Order, 161 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism subject to eight weighty regulations, beginning with one to the effect that even the eldest ordained Sister must stand before and behave with extreme humility toward a Brother, if even only ordained a single day. But he adds : " If, Ananda, women had not retired from household life to the houseless one, under the doctrine_and discipline announced by the Tathagata, religion, Ananda, would long endure ; a thousand years would the good doctrine abide. But since, Ananda, women have now retired from the household life to the houseless one, under the doctrine and discipline announced by the Tathagata, not long, Ananda, will religion endure; but five hundred years, Ananda, will the good doctrine abide." Elsewhere, in reply to another question propounded by Ananda, Gautama replies : " Women are soon angered, Ananda ; women are full of passion, Ananda; women are envious, Ananda; women are stupid, Ananda. That is the reason, Ananda, that the cause, why women have no place in public assemblies, do not carry on a business, and do not earn their living by any profession." Highly characteristic is the story of thirty charitable men, led by the Bodhisatta when existing in the form of the young Brahman, Magha : these men, upon a certain occasion were setting up a rest-house at the cross-roads by way of charity. " But as they no longer took delight in womankind, they allowed no woman to share in the good work." It is pleasing to reflect that a lady of the name of Piety succeeded in bribing one of these painfully good men to agree to a stratagem by which she was enabled to share in the meritorious work, and that she thereby earned for herself a palace in the heaven of Sakka. 1 1 Kulctoakajataka. 162 Women On the other hand we find that Gautama did not disdain to accept the hospitality and the gifts of devout lay women. 1 Such a one is represented to us in the honourable matron Visakha, " a rich citizen commoner at Savatthi, the chief town of Kosala, the mother of many blooming children, the grandmother of countless grandchildren. 5 ' This lady makes provision on a liberal scale for the Buddha and his disciples while they reside at Savatthi. One day she approaches Gautama and makes eight requests, and these are, that she be allowed to furnish the brethren with cloths for the rainy season, to give food to brethren coming in (to a monastery), to those going out (from a monastery), to give food for the sick, for those who tend the sick, to give medicine for the sick, to give a constant supply of conjey, and to give bathing cloths, for the Order of sisters. She sets forth the desirability of such alms in detail. The Buddha replies with words of approval, and is pleased to grant the eight favours. It should be remarked, that in accordance with the Indian view of charity, these are so many favours bestowed upon Visakha, not, as Western readers might think, upon the Order; for the religious mendicant, by accepting gifts, confers upon the giver the opportunity of a meritorious deed. Accordingly the Holy One praised Visakha as one who walks the shining, commendable path, and will joy- fully reap for a long period the reward of her charity, here and hereafter. It is justly remarked by Professor Oldenberg : " Pictures like this of Visakha, benefactresses of the Church, with their inexhaustible religious zeal, and their not less inex- haustible resources of money, are certainly, if anything 1 The seven most illustrious women of Early Buddhism are : Khema, Uppalavanna, Patacara, Bhadda, Kisa Gotaml, Dhammadinna, and Visakha. For the full story of Visakha see Warren, Buddhism in Translations^ p. 451 f.\ for Kisa Gotaml see pp. 23, 148, 270; for Visakha see p. 52 ; for Khema see p. 223. 163 Buddha &P the Gospel of Buddhism ever was, drawn from the life of India in those days : they cannot be left out of sight, if we desire to get an idea of the actors who made the oldest Buddhist community what it was. 5 ' Gautama, however, did not merely accept the offerings of the respectable, but also those of * sinners.' It is recorded that upon a certain occasion he accepted for himself and his followers an invitation to dinner * from the courtesan Ambapall, and refused the alternative invitation of the Licchavi princes, to their great annoyance. 2 He also for some time took up his residence in her mango pleasaunce, of which, moreover, she made a gift to the Order. The Sutta says : " The Exalted One accepted the gift ; and after instruct- ing, and rousing, and inciting, and gladdening her with religious discourse, he rose from his seat and departed thence." It is worthy of note that neither Visakha nor Ambapall is represented to have left the world as an immediate result of his teaching, or even to have changed her mode of life ; their gifts were accepted by Gautama simply as those of pious laywomen. Each would receive in some heaven the immediate reward of her generosity, and in some future life the fruit of perfect enlightenment. Buddhist thought gives honour to woman to this extent, that it never doubts the possibility of her putting off her woman's nature, and even in this life becoming, as it were, a man. The case is given of the lady Gopika who, "having abandoned a woman's thoughts and cultivated the thoughts of a man " was reborn as a son of Sakka in heaven. There was also, and more conspicuous, the 1 This does not involve sitting down to eat at the same table or at the same time. 2 See above, pp. 74, 75. 164 Women great body of the Sisters initiated, though under protest, with the consent of Gautama himself of whom many attained to Arahatta, to Nibbana ; and of these last, the beautiful songs of triumph are preserved in the Psalms of the Sisters. And although these Sisters were technically appointed juniors in perpetuity to the Brethren, "it is equally clear that, by intellectual and moral eminence, a Then might claim equality with the highest of the fraternity." x The woman who left the world and adopted the Sisters' rule not only escaped from the restrictions and drudgery of domesticity, but like the Hindu widow of the type of LilavatJ, or like the modern woman thinker who meets her masculine colleagues on equal terms obtained from her brethren recognition as a rational being, a human being rather than a woman ; she shared the intellectual communion of the religious aristocracy of the Ariyas. Her point of view in this regard is clearly expressed in the Psalms : Am I a woman in such matters, or Am I a man ? or what am I then ? and How should the woman s nature hinder us? while all that is essentially feminine is left behind Speak not to me of delighting in aught of sensuous pleasures ! Verily all such vanities now no more may delight me. This position is very closely paralleled by that which is put forward by Schopenhauer, and by Weiningen The latter sums up his argument by saying : " Man can only 1 C. A. F. Rhys Davids, Psalms of the Sister s> p. xxvL 165 Buddha &P the Gospel of Buddhism respect woman when she herself ceases to be object and material for man. . . . A woman who had really given up her sexual self, who wished to be at peace, would be no longer * woman.* She would have ceased to be 6 woman/ she would have received the inward and spiritual sign as well as the outward form of regeneration." He asks, " Is it (then) possible for woman really to wish to realize the problem of existence, the conception of guilt (dukkha) ? Can she really desire freedom? This can happen only by her being penetrated by an ideal, brought to the guiding star. . . . In that way only can there be an emanci- pation (Nibbana) of woman." x To these questions the Buddhist experience replies that it is possible for woman to really desire freedom, and that no small number of women amongst the Buddhist Sisters attained it. It may be left to the advocates of woman's * emancipa- tion ' on the one hand, and to feminine idealists on the other, to debate how far these views involve the honour or the dishonour of * woman/ XI L EARLY BUDDHISM AND NATURE Here, O Bhikkus, are the roots of trees, here are empty places : meditate. Majjhima Nlkaya^ i, 118. That deep understanding of Nature which characterizes the later developments of Buddhism in China and Japan we must not regard as entirely alien to the early Bud- dhists, still less as essentially Far Eastern rather than Indian. In spite of themselves the early Buddhist her- mits were lovers of Nature, and even in Hlnayana litera- ture the poet now and again overcomes the monk. That delight in flowers and forests which is characteristic of 1 Weininger, Sex and Character (1906), pp. 347-9, 166 Early Buddhism ^f Nature the Brahmanical epics, especially the Ramayana, and of the Indian love-song throughout, was also felt by some of the Buddhist Brethren and Sisters. Almost exactly that sentiment which finds expression in Whitman's exclamation / think I could turn and live with the animals, they are so placid and self-contain 'd, I stand and look at them long and long. They do not sweat and whine about their condition. . . . Not one is dissatisfied, not one is demented with the mania of owning things > is to be recognized in the customary Indian, and therefore also Buddhist, comparison of the ideal man, be he Rama or Buddha, to a lion or an elephant, or sometimes to a mountain that may not be shaken : Like elephant superb is he On wooded heights in Himalay . . . The Nagcts trunk is confidence; His white tusks equanimity. . . . Detachment is the tail of him. . . . From store laid up he doth refrain* or, again, the hermit Shineth glorious in a patchwork robe As lion in the sombre mountain cave}- or is likened to the mountain's self : Sure-based, a Brother with illusions gone* Like to that mountain stands unwavering* 1 Psalms of the Brethren (Theragatha\\xBi&. C. A. F. Rhys Davids. The eight quotations next following are from the same source. 167 Buddha ftp the Gospel of Buddhism Elsewhere the Buddha, or one like Buddha is compared to the flower of the lotus : So is the Buddha in this world, Born in the world and dwelling there, But by the world nowise dejiled E'en as the lily by the lake. The way of the Buddhist freeman, the Ariya who has escaped the fetters of the world, is likened to the flight of the white cranes against the cloudy sky. We find also among the Psalms of the Brethren veritable nature poems : Those rocky heights with hue of dark blue clouds, Where lies embosomed many a shining tarn Of crystal-clear, cool waters, and whose slopes The * herds of Indra 9 cover and bedeck . . . Fair uplands rain-refreshed, and resonant With crested creatures cries antiphonal, Lone heights where silent Rishis oft resort . . . Free from the crowds of citizens below, But thronged with flocks of many winged things, The home of herding creatures of the wild . . . Haunted by black-faced apes and timid deer, Where *neath bright blossoms run the silver streams : Such are the braes wherein my soul delights. Another of the poet monks is credited with nine gathas, of which one runs : When in the lowering sky thunders the storm-cloud } s drum, And all the pathways of the birds are thick with rain, The brother sits within the hollow of the hills Alone, rapt in thoughfs ecstasy. No higher bliss Is given to men than this* 168 Early Buddhism & Nature While yet another writes : Whenderl see the crane, her clear pale wings Outstretched in fear to flee the black storm-cloud, A shelter seeking, to safe shelter borne, Then doth the river Ajakaranl Give joy to me. Who doth not love to see on either bank Clustered rose-apple trees in fair array, Beyond the great cave of the % hermitage, Or hear the soft croak of the frogs? . . . No less characteristic are the rain-songs : God rains as *twere a melody most sweet, Snug is my little hut, sheltered, well~roofed. The heart of me is steadfast and at peace. Now, an it pleaseth thee to rain, god, rain ! But these are the utterances of individual monks; we cannot frankly credit early Buddhism the teaching of Buddha with the kinship of the wild. The love of lonely places is most often for their very loneliness, and because there is the most convenient refuge from the bustle and temptations of the world, from intercourse with worldly men and with women. The lines thus quoted ending, "Such are the braes wherein my soul delights/ are followed immediately by the edifying justification sounding almost like an excuse : For that which brings me exquisite delight Is not the strains of string and pipe and drum, But when with intellect well-poised, intent, I gain the perfect vision of the Norm. While he that notes how " all the pathways of the birds are thick with rain " claims to be absorbed in the ecstasy 169 Buddha ^f the Gospel of Buddhism of thought. As Mrs Rhys Davids says, the ecstasy is here scarcely the product of religious pleasure alone. Is not then the 'gentle paganism' which allows the indi- vidual poet anchorite to feel this positive pleasure in the scenes and sights of the forests, regarded from the stand- point of the Norm, a spiritual weakness? To such as yielded thereto, a city life might very well have been appointed by way of penance. More truly in accord with the monastic will to entire aloof- ness is the coldness of the monk Citta Gutta, of whom the Visuddhi Magga relates that he dwelt for sixty years in a painted cave, before which grew a beautiful rose-chest- nut : yet not only had he never observed the paintings on the roof of the cave, but he only knew when the tree flowered every year, through seeing the fallen pollen and the petals on the ground. In the Maha-Parinibbana Sutta, too, the Buddha holds up to highest admiration the man (himself) who, "being conscious and awake, neither sees, nor hears the sound thereof when the falling rain is beating and splashing, and the lightnings are flashing forth, and the thunderbolts are crashing." It is true that Early Buddhist literature abounds with many comparisons of the ideal man to an elephant or a rhinoceros. The heart of the comparison, to the Buddhist, lay in the particularization of the elephant as a solitary elephant, and the fact that the rhinoceros is by nature solitary. In this way the Buddhists called on higher men to leave the market-place, knowing that " Great things are done when men and mountains meet They are not done by jostling in the street" But we cannot credit the Buddhist authors who use these metaphors with any special understanding of Nature, 170 Early Buddhism ^f Nature any more than we should the early Christian writers who speak of the lamb and the dove. The comparison very soon, indeed, becomes ridiculous. " Cultivating kindness, equanimity, compassion, deliverance and sympathy, unob- structed by the whole world, let him wander alone like a rhinoceros," is the constant theme of the Khaggavisana Sutta. But this is a false and sentimental view, or at least nothing better than the twisting of natural fact to edifying ends, for the rhinoceros is a surly beast, and the solitary elephant a * rogue.' Still more is it false, and not " regard- ing things as they really are" to pretend for the animals who are not in fact at all emancipate from passion, and who do not think about their sins, or practise Asubha meditations the temperament of an ascetic human. The pagan innocence of animals and children is in truth very far indeed from the Ideal of Early Buddhist monasticism. What these metaphors show us is a phase of the common Oriental tendency to find in natural objects the symbols of general ideas. But they do not yet imply any such sense of the unity of life as finds expression in Matsunaga's poem on the morning glory, 1 or Whitman's passionate confession of belief " in those winged purposes." Even the epithets migabhutena cetasa, * having a heart like the wild deer, 5 and aranna^sannino^ * having the forest sense of things ' for all their beauty may not always mean all that they seem to say. At least we cannot but doubt if those who used these terms realized all that they implied. In Zen Buddhism, on the contrary, phrases of this sort have a real and deep meaning, for in animals and children the inner and outer life are at one, the duality of flesh and spirit which afflicts us with the sense of sin is not yet felt ; the Zen Buddhist does in truth Aspire to 1 See below, p. 256. 171 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism recover that unity of consciousness which is asked for in the beautiful prayer of Socrates to make at one the inner and outer man and he knows that to recover the kingdom of heaven, the state of Buddhahood, he must become again as a little child, he must possess the heart of the wild deer; notwithstanding he must also overcome the ignorance of which they are not yet aware. But it was not in this sense that the early Buddhist ascetics yearned for the * forest sense of things;' or if for some it was so, then these individual singers are no longer typical exponents of primitive Buddhism, but forerunners of the Mahayana and Zen, taught by their forest masters to understand the unity of life, hearing already the Sermon of the Woods, already breaking through the spiritual isolation of the Arahat and Pacceka Buddha. That the early Buddhist culture is still far from a true intimacy with the Suchness of the world appears in its lack of sympathy with human nature. It is impossible to claim for a monastic rule which includes as an essential practice the Meditation on the Foulness of Things, a real sympathy with Nature ; it is inconsistent to delight in the ways of the wild creatures of the woods, and to turn with loathing from the nobility and innocence of men. It is a strange view of Nature that regards the human body as " impure, malodorous, full of foul matter," an "offensive shape, 95 and a " carrion thing," and strives to promote a disgust for the healthy flesh by a contemplation of decaying corpses. "This body vile," says Sister Vijaya, "doth touch me only with distress and shame." l 1 The morbid aspects of this hot-house cultivation of indifference and purity are indicated in Psalms of the Brethren, w. 316, 1055, and almost equally so in w. 567 /. See also VisuddM Magga, ch. vi, Warren, Buddhism in Translations^ p. 298, 172 Early Buddhism & Nature No one will wish to deny that the truths of early Buddhism are true, or that the stress that was laid on Anicca (tran- sience) and Anatta (no created soul), and the thought of salvation here and now, constituted a permanent con- tribution to our realization of * things as they really are ; ' and we can hardly be too grateful for the condemnation of sentimentality as a cardinal sin. But the early Buddhists, like so many other enthusiasts, used their share of truth for the denial of others : they were so convinced of the sorrows of the world that they could not sympathize with its joys. In saying this, I do not forget the Sublime Mood of Mudita; but I remember that early Buddhist literature as a whole is filled with a contempt of the world which inevitably precludes a sympathy with its hopes and fears. Early Buddhism does not associate itself with the hopes and fears of this life : it seeks only to point out the haven of refuge from both hope and fear, and its sympathy is with the struggles of those who are caught in the toils of either. The early Buddhist could not possibly grasp the thought that 'The soul of sweet delight can never be defiled/ We must not, on the other hand, allow ourselves to carry too far this criticism of early Buddhist deficiencies. Let us once more remember that this is not a religion for laymen, but a rule for monks, and as such, though severe, it is reasonable and sane, and well designed to cultivate the noble type of character desired. We must also remember that Gautama did not stand alone in his Puritanism; this was the intellectual bias of his age, and is reflected as much in Brahmanical and Jaina as in Buddhist texts, and it survives as a tendency in Indian thought to the present day, though only as one among others more powerful. The general (not only Buddhist) aesthetic of Gautama's age, moreover, was wholly 173 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism hedonistic ; it was not imagined that music or plastic art considered as secular could have any other than a sensuous appeal, or considered as religious could subserve a mbre spiritual aim than that of pleasing the gods or fulfilling the purposes of the magician. It was also an age of highly developed material civilization and, at least for those classes where the intellectual movements of Atmanism and Buddhism originated, of great, if simple, luxury. It was, then, the first natural reaction of the thinking mind to escape from the bondage of the senses by asceticism, cutting off as it were the hand, and pluck- ing out the eye. Amongst many who felt this impulse, Gautama was distinguished by moderation. This Indian age of asceticism, moreover, we ought to regard as the useful brakmacarya^ the severe and spartan early education of the future householder, accomplished according to the discipline of the final truths Anatta and neti, neti. As one of the most severe critics of early Buddhism has remarked : " Asceticism and Puritanism are almost indispensable means of educating and ennobling a race which seeks to rise above its hereditary baseness and work itself upward to future supremacy." * In later centuries the race 2 that had thus by self-knowledge and self-control attained to spiritual manhood, could permit to itself a relaxation of the monastic discipline, propor- tionate to its growing power to achieve the union of renunciation with sweet delight, and to find in work, no- work. The future civilization of India, above all its wonderful social ideal, was based on the intellectual tapas of the Forest-dwellers and the Wanderers of the age of 1 Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil, p. 81. 2 By 'race' I mean no more than the succession of individuals sharing the Indo-Aryan culture. 174 Early Buddhism & Nature the Upanishads and of Gautama, and it would ill-become us to depreciate that without which the future could not have been. The early Buddhist ideal considered as such needs no justification; it is only as against those who seek to establish it as the one and only mode of saving truth, and in particular those who speak of the Mahayana and of Hinduism as a falling away into superstition and ignorance, that we have to point out very unmistakably, that the Theravada ideal, if not positively narrow, is at least definitely limited. No one pretends that with change there did not come both loss and gain ; but no religion has ever yet persisted for even a single century unchanged, the possibility of such a thing is even contrary to Anicca, and the Buddhist Dhamma could no more defend itself from growth than any other living seed. Those who would cast away the stem and the branches, whether to * return to the Vedas of Brahmanism, or to return to the Theravada Dhamma of Gautama may be compared to a man who is old in years and experience, and in honourable achievement, and yet, remembering the greatness of the sainted teachers of his youth, would fain never have departed from their feet to deal with good and evil in the world of living men. Let us on the contrary recognize that there exists no breach of continuity between the old and the new laws, and that the Mahayana and the later expansion of Hinduism are the very fruit of the earlier discipline. From this point of view it becomes of the utmost interest to seek out and recognize in early Buddhist thought the unmistakable germs which are afterward fully developed in the Mahayana, especially the Mahayana of the Zen type, and which in alliance with Taoist philosophy effected a recon- ciliation of religion with the world. Amongst the sources 175 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism of this wider culture, not the least important are those traces of the love of nature, and that tendency to lyrical and ballad-form expression which we observe so well marked in the Psalms of the Brethren and Sisters, and in the Jatakas. XIII. BUDDHIST PESSIMISM It has often been said, and not altogether without reason, that (early) Buddhism is a pessimistic faith. It is to Buddha and such as Buddha that Nietzsche refers when he exclaims : "They meet an invalid, or an old man, or a corpse and immediately they say *Life is refuted.'" Can we agree that Buddhism is pessimistic? The answer is both Yes and No. Human life is of supreme value to the Buddhist as the only condition from which the highest good can be reached ; hence suicide (the real proof of the conviction that life is not worth living) is explicitly and constantly condemned by Buddhist scripture as waste of opportunity. But we have to recognize that the quality of life is very varied, and Buddhism is far from optimistic about any and every sort of life, the mere fact of existence. Gautama ridicules the mere will to life as much as Nietzsche himself despises sensual men; even the desire for rebirth in the highest heavens is spoken of by Buddhists as 'low/ The common life of the world, according to Gautama, is not worth living it is no life for an Ariya, a gentleman. But on the other hand he puts forward a mode of life for higher men which he regards as well worth living, and claims that by this life the highest good is attainable, and in this conviction that * Paradise is still upon earth* he is anything but pessimistic. It is true that he refuses to regard life as an end in itself; but so 176 Buddhist Pessimism do Nietzsche and Whitman. We do not call the latter pessimistic when he praises death more than life. Through me shall the words be said to make death ex- hilarating . . . Nor will I allow you any more to balk me with what I was calling life. For now it is conveyed to me that you are the purports essential, That you hide in these shifting forms of life. . . . That you will one day perhaps take control of all. In precisely the same way using * Death * for Nibbana, the artist disparages 'life': " For, looking too long upon life, may one not find all this to be not the beautiful, nor the mysterious, nor the tragic, but the dull, the melodramatic, and the silly : the conspiracy against vitality against both red and white heat? And from such things which lack the sun of life it is not possible to draw inspiration. But from that mysterious, joyous, and superbly complete life which is called Death . . . which seems a kind of spring, a blossoming from this land and from this idea can come so vast an inspiration, that with unhesitating exultation I leap forward to it; and behold, in an instant, I find my arms full of flowers/' x The first of the Four Ariyan Truths then which affirms the existence of suffering, Dukkha, as the symptom and constitutional sickness of individuality, cannot be called pessimistic, because it merely states the obvious: we know that a conditioned life of eternal happiness is a contradiction in terms. Moreover, the early Buddhists were very far from miser- able ; they rejoiced as those who were healthy amongst the 1 Gordon Craig, The Art of the Theatre. 177 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism ailing, and had found a remedy for every possible recur- rence of illness. We read, for example, in the Dhammapada : " In perfect joy we live, without enemy in this world of enmity . . . among sick men we dwell without sickness , . . among toiling men we dwell without toil. . . . The monk who dwells in an empty abode, whose soul is full of peace, enjoys superhuman felicity, gazing solely on the truth." It is to be observed, however, and must be admitted, that the Buddhist view of ordinary life is lacking in courage. The very emphasis laid on Dukkha is false : for it is not Dukkha only, but an exactly equal measure of Dukkha and Sukha alike, Pain and Pleasure, which is the mark of this life. There are indeed many reasons why we cannot place the zenith of our being in this world of Pain and Pleasure; but the predominance of Pain over Pleasure cannot be one of these. Another mark of genuine pessimism by which I mean only * looking on the dark side of things ' is the charac- teristic Early Buddhist distrust of pleasure. We cannot nobly find a ruling principle of life either in seeking to avoid pain, or in courting pleasure; but much rather in the thought: "I strive not after my happiness, I strive after my work, but accept pleasure, bear pain, unmoved by either. The highest state must be without desire, because desire implies a lack, and in this sense the superman, the Arahat, is by definition passionless. Now this is a state which we may best conceive in the manner of Chuang Tzu : " By a man without passions I mean one who does not permit good and evil to disturb his internal economy, but rather falls in with whatever happens, as a matter of course, and does not add to the sum of his mortality." 178 Buddhist Pessimism But the Buddhist is very much disturbed by good and evil he fears pleasure, and he would avoid pain, and the whole of the Dhamtna is designed to achieve the latter end. It is true that saving knowledge must at last release the individual from the possibility of pain : " But Buddhism was the first to transform that which was a mere consequence into a motive, and by conceiving emancipation as an escape from the sufferings of existence, to make selfishness the ultimate mainspring of existence." 1 This is probably the most severe criticism that has any- where been passed on Early Buddhism, and though I think it is unfairly comprehensive, it contains some ele- ments of truth. It is, of course, otherwise with the Bod- hisatta ideal, where the individual for an end beyond him- self takes upon his own shoulders the burden of the world's ignorance, and freely spends himself in countless lives of supernatural generosity. The Bodhisatta ideal is practically identical with that of the Nietzschean Super- man, with his * Bestowing Virtue.' But while in certain aspects Early Buddhism has a pessimistic character, we must protest against either of the assumptions: (i) that the view that ordinary life, a mere existence, is relatively worthless, is properly to be described as pessimistic, or (2) that Indian religious pessimism, real or fancied, has any connexion whatever with the supposed unhappy circumstances of Indian life or the enervating consequences of the Indian climate. As regards the first assumption, it may suffice to indicate that the * optimistic 5 Nietzsche pours more scorn on * mere existence ' than is to be found anywhere in Buddhism. And as regards the second, it may be pointed out to select but one of many arguments that 1 Deussen, The Philosophy of the Upanishads^ p. 341. 179 Buddha SP the Gospel of Buddhism the so-called pessimistic beliefs have always proceeded from the higher classes, who enjoyed the good things of this life to the full: if there is a contrast between the childish ' optimism* of the early Vedic hymns, with their prayers for many cattle and long life, and the * pessimism' of the Vedanta or of Buddhism, this is a result not of a decline in material civilization, but of the accumulation of experience. For the Indian view is the correct one, that it is not deprivation of the good things of this world that leads the wise at last to turn to higher thoughts, but rather long experience of their ultimate monotony. Desires suppressed breed pestilence : but the road of excess leads to the palace of wisdom. Eman- cipation seeks to avoid a future heaven no less than a future hell had it been prompted by a mere reaction from the misery of physical existence, this must have created a religion similar to certain aspects of Christianity where compensation for the sorrows of this life is expected in a heaven of endless delight. XIV. A BUDDHIST EMPEROR A characteristic story is related in the later legendary history of Gautama. It is said that when he was seated beneath the Bodhi tree, and near to attain Nibbana, the Evil One, failing to shake his purpose in other ways, appeared in the guise of a messenger with letters bearing the false report that Devadatta Gautama's cousin and constant enemy had usurped the throne of Kapilavastu, and had taken the wives and the goods of Gautama to himself and imprisoned his father ; the letters urged him to return to restore peace and order. But Gautama reflected that Devadatta's action resulted from his malice and lust, while the Sakyas, in not defending their king 1 80 A Buddhist Emperor had shown a cowardly and despicable disposition. Con- templating these follies and weaknesses of the natural man, his own resolution to attain to something higher and better was confirmed in him. 1 This legend aptly expresses the indifference of Buddhism to the order of the world. It is in full accord with this point of view that Buddhism has never formulated the ideal of a social order of this or that type : its ethic is purely individualistic, and places no reliance whatever on external regulation. Mere good government cannot lead to the Dying Out (Nibbana) of Craving, Resentment, and Infatuation : and since the Gospel of Gautama has solely to do with the way to that Dying Out, it is not concerned with government at all. This position is practically identical with that of Jesus, who repudiated any alliance of the Kingdom of God with temporal power. In agreement with this view, both the father and mother of Gautama, and his wife and son, and a host of Sakya princes resigned their worldly status and became homeless followers of Him-who-has-thus-attained. If, however, every ruler who accepted the Buddhist Gospel had immediately adopted the homeless life, it would be im- possible to speak of Buddhist emperors or kings. We find, on the contrary, that ruling princes, Buddhist by education or conversion, constantly retained their temporal power, and used this power for the propagation of the Dhamma, for the support of the Brethren, and for the maintenance of social order conformable to Buddhist ethic. History preserves for us the names of many such Buddhist kings, who, notwith- standing that Buddhism is a Gospel of self-mastery alone, sought to improve the order of the world by ruling others. It is in this way that the doctrine which was 1 Beal, Romantic History of Buddha^ p. 207 : supra, p. 32. 181 Buddha df the Gospel of Buddhism originally, not perhaps altogether anti-social, but at least non-social, has come to have an influence upon the social order. We shall gain a good idea of the social influence of Buddhism by devoting attention to Asoka Maurya, the most famous of the Buddhist rulers of India. Asoka succeeded to the throne of Magadha about 270 B.C. and received a more formal coronation four years later. The first great event in his reign took place eight years later ; this was the conquest of Kalinga, a considerable territory bordering the east coast, south of the modern Orissa; with this addition, his territory embraced the whole of India except the extreme south. This conquest involved the slaughter of 100,000 persons, while half as many again were carried into captivity, and many more perished from famine and pestilence. Perhaps the spectacle of so much suffering predisposed the Emperor to consider with special attention that system of which the sole aim was to point out the way of salvation from Suffering, Dukkha. 1 At any rate Asoka himself records his adhesion to the Buddhist Dhamma in the following terms: ** Directly after the annexation of the Kalingas, began his Sacred Majesty's zealous protection of the Dhamma, his love of that Dhamma, and his giving instruction therein. Thus arose His Sacred Majesty's remorse for having con- quered the Kalingas, because the conquest of a country 1 "Victory," says the Dhammapada^ v. 201, "breeds hatred, for the conquered is unhappy." It is worth notice that it has been suggested that the study of Buddhism is likely to receive a great impetus in the immediate future, because of "its power to restrain its adherents from those sanguinary outbreaks of international butchery which occur about once in every generation in the West." Cambridge Magazine, April 24, 1915. 182 A Buddhist Emperor previously unconquered involves the slaughter, death, and carrying away captive of the people. That is a matter of profound sorrow and regret to His Sacred Majesty," and thus connecting his conversion with the change of attitude toward others, he continues : "Thus of all the people who were then slain, done to death, or carried away captive in the Kalingas, if the hundredth or the thousandth part were to suffer the same fate, it would now be matter of regret to His Sacred Majesty. Moreover, should any one do him wrong that too must be borne with by His Sacred Majesty, if it can possibly be borne with. . . . His Sacred Majesty desires that all animate beings should have security, self-control, peace of mind, and joyousness. . . And for this purpose has this pious edict been written in order that my sons and grandsons, who may be, should not regard it as their duty to conquer a new conquest. If, perchance, they become engaged in a conquest by arms, they should take pleasure in patience and gentleness, and regard as (the only true) conquest the conquest won by piety. That avails for both this world and the next. Let all joy be in effort, because that avails for both this world and the next." In many other edicts, which were engraved on stone and are still extant, Asoka proclaims his Dhamma in great detail. This Dhamma is distinctively Buddhist, but it differs from the teaching of Gautama in omitting all references to the analytic aspect and dwelling exclusively on ethics: Nibbana is not even mentioned, and the reward of well-doing is to be the Imperial favour in this world and well-being in the next, 'the beyond 5 not the avoidance of rebirth. The mention of former Buddhas together with other details, shows already some develop- ment of Mahayanist doctrines. It is thus possible that 183 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism Asoka made the determination to attain Buddhahood in some future life, but more likely he looked forward only to a future attainment of Arahatta. The edicts are essentially concerned with ethical be- haviour; they imply a considerable amount of inter- ference with personal liberty, such as we should now call * making people good by Act of Parliament/ Asoka desires to be a father to his subjects, and speaks with parental authority. He lays the greatest stress on re- ligious tolerance and on the duty of reverence to those whose age or station deserves it; and strongly inculcates the sanctity of animal life. On the other hand there is no attempt to abolish capital punishment. Reverence, compassion, truthfulness and sympathy are the cardinal virtues. The most remarkable, far-reaching and permanent effects of Asoka's activities are those which resulted from his Foreign Missions. This phrase is to be understood in the modern evangelical, and not in a political, sense : for we find that not content with preaching the Dhamma to his own subjects, Asoka dispatched imperial missionaries to all other parts of India, to Ceylon, and then to Syria, Egypt, Cyrene, Macedonia, and Epirus, and these mission- aries together with the Buddhist Dhamma were also charged to diffuse a knowledge of useful medicines. It is due more to Asoka than to any other individual that Buddhism became and long remained the predominant religion of India, and indeed of Asia, and up to the present day counts more adherents than any other faith. The conversion of Ceylon is recorded in the Chronicles of Ceylon with a wealth of picturesque detail which is partly :onfirmed by archaeological discoveries in Northern fndia, but cannot be regarded as historical in toto. In [84 Originally a funeral mound, the stftpa came to be a symbol of the last great event of the Buddha's life, the Parimruaya. Generally the stupa enshrines relics of the Buddha, and later those of his disciples. Reliquaries are made of gold, silver, crystal or other precious metals. Stupas are memorials built in particularly holy places. They may be made of brick, brick and rubble, or stone, encased in masonry or not, round or oval in shape. The stupa represents the three worlds, the world of man by the square plinth on which the stupa rests, surrounded by a railing. The world of the Gods is signified by the dome, as vault of heaven ; and the world of space is indicated by the umbrella rising from the tee. The three lintels across the top of the lofty gateways and the pillars tell the life-episodes of the Buddha, that "sweet story of old," the which is never repeated too often. In India the world is looked upon as consisting of the very presence of G_od in His multiple forms. The divine is understood as a com- ponent part of man and nature, apparent without being visible ... as the digit one is present in two, three, four, etc, or as is often said, "He is One as He is in Himself, He is many as He is in us," A Buddhist Emperor particular, it is related that Asoka's chief missionary to Ceylon was a son named Mahendra, who converted the King of Ceylon and 40,000 of his subjects. In order that the Princess Anula and other women might also be ordained, a return mission was sent to request the dispatch of Asoka's daughter Sanghamitta, with a branch of the sacred Bodhi tree to be planted in Ceylon. It is claimed that the sacred Bo-tree still preserved at Anuradhapura in Ceylon, is that same branch, which has become the oldest historical tree in the world. The Princess was duly ordained by Sanghamitta and became an Arahat. In point of fact the conversion of Ceylon must have been more gradual than is here indicated, but there is no doubt that embassies were exchanged and converts made. The Sinhalese not, of course, the Tamils who occupy a good part of the north of the island have remained Buddhists to this day, and for the most part, though not exclusively, of the orthodox Hlnayana persuasion. We must also think of Asoka as a great administrator and a great builder. His Empire embraced almost the whole of India and Afghanistan, of which the adminis- tration was already highly organized alike for record and executive action. With tireless energy Asoka attempted the impossible task of personally supervising all the affairs of government: "I am never fully satisfied," he says, " with my efforts and my dispatch of business." The essential character of his rule was a paternal despotism. That he successfully ruled so large an Empire for forty years is proof of his ability, as the words of his edicts are of his strong individuality which has been likened to that of Cromwell and Constantine and practical piety. We have already mentioned that the Edicts were engraved '85 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism on stone, and that many survive. Some of these are recorded on monolithic pillars; by far the finest of these is the pillar recently discovered at Sarnath, among the monasteries on the site of the old deer-park at Benares, where Gautama preached his first sermon. The pillar was surmounted by a lion capital (Plate T), with a string course bearing a horse, lion, bull, and elephant in relief, and the Wheel of the Law, above a bell-shaped base of Persian character, such as appears elsewhere in contemporary architecture. The whole is of extra- ordinarily perfect workmanship only paralleled in finish by the accurate fitting of some of the Asokan masonry, and the burnished surfaces of some of the rock-cells dedicated by Asoka for the use of the Ajlvikas : and we must not forget the engineering skill implied in the transport and erection, often hundreds of miles from the present quarries, of monolithic pillars weighing as much as fifty tons. Asoka's own capital at Pataliputra, 1 modern Patna, is described as follows by the Chinese pilgrim Fa Hien, eight centuries later : "The royal palace and halls in the midst of the city, which exist now as of old, were all made by spirits which he employed, and which piled up the stones, reared the walls and gates, and executed the elegant carving and inlaid sculpture work in a way which no human hands of this world could accomplish. 5 ' 1 Excavations on this site are now in progress. 1 86 Lion Capital from an Asoka Column (the base is an inverted lotus). (Third century B.C. Polished ChuriSir sandstone. 7' x 2^1 0". Archaeological Museum, SSrnath.) Originally surmounted by a Wheel of the Law (another wheel is repeated on the abacus), erected to commemorate the Preaching of the First Sermon, The pillared wheel is a representation of the sun, the revolution of the year and the PART III : CONTEMPORARY SYSTEMS L THE VEDANTA THE system of philosophy which is above all the philosophy of India is the Vedanta, the 'com- pletion' or 'goal' of the Vedas: and by this term Vedanta is to be understood the interpretation of the Upani- shads,and of the Vedanta Sutras, according to Sankaracarya in the ninth century A.D. and by Ramanuja in the eleventh. It will be seen that these synthetic interpretations are long post-Buddhist; but that is not the case with the most important of the actual Upanishads, viz. the Brihad- aranyaka and the Chandogya, which are undoubtedly pre- Buddhist. These are likewise the most important of the Vedanta scriptures, and they must be the more referred to here because some writers have considered that "it is the ideas of the Upanishads which by a kind of degenera- tion have developed into Buddhism on one side and the Samkhya system on the other. " Just as the Old Testament is superseded by the New, so the Upanishads declare the insufficiency of ritual and its reward, and substitute for these a religion of the spirit. All the Upanishads alike treat of one subject, the doctrine of the Brahman or Atman. Very often these are treated as synonymous. If or where a distinction is made, then the Brahman is the Absolute, and the Atman is that Absolute as realized in the individual consciousness; we can then express the fundamental thought of the Upanishads by the simple equation Brahman = Atman. If we should seek a simile for this identity we may 187 Buddha ftp the Gospel of Buddhism find it in the identity of Infinite Space with the space in any closed vessel shatter the bounding walls of the vessel, that is to say, the ignorance that maintains our seeming individuality, and the identity of space with space is patent. " That art Thou " this is the form the equation takes: in the actual language of the Brihad- aranyaka, Tat tvam asi. That Absolute is one and the same with whatever in ourselves we must consider as our true Self, the unchangeable essence of our being, our spirit. What then is the spirit of man? What am I ? That is a question to which, as the Vedanta recognizes, there may be many answers. Even the most idealistic Upanishads do not start by denying, as Gautama denies, the existence of an I, a knowing, perduring subject; it is only by a process of elimination that the thought is reached that the Subject is No-thing. Thus, some identify the ego with the body, as we still do in everyday parlance, when for example, we say *I am cold/ meaning 'The body is cold.' But seeing that the body visibly changes and decays how are we to identify our overwhelming consciousness of the eternity and freedom of our being with the mortal flesh? Another answer postulates an * Eternal Soul/ a dweller in the body passing from body to body: this is the well-known Indian theory of trans- migration of an individual for which, in Buddhism, is substituted the transmigration of character. Such a soul, if imagined to be freed from corporeal fetters, may be likened to the dream consciousness, where the bonds of time and space are loosely drawn. Analogous to this view is the Christian doctrine of an Eternal Soul which passes from Earth to an Eternal Heaven or Hell, and it is against such conceptions of the Atman that the Anatta theory of Buddhism is directed. A 1 88 The Vedanta third view is idealistic, recognizing only one supreme soul, wherein there is no duality, "neither shadow of turning" nor consciousness of subject and object. This view, subject to slight differences of interpretation, forms the common philosophic basis of a great part of Eastern and Western mysticism. Here the state of the self is likened to Deep Sleep. It is this universal Self, one without any other, which the individual seeker pressing inward to the centre finds in his own consciousness, when nothing of himself is left in him. Philosophically, as we have said, it is reached by a process of elimination the superposition of attributes, 1 and the successive denial of each in turn, as each is found to contradict our conscious- ness 'of timeless being and utter freedom : and thus we reach the great Vedantic formula, descriptive of the Atman or Brahman as 'Not so, not so.' The "soul* is, then, void, No thing, it does not pass from birth to death, it has no parts, it is not subject to becoming nor to time, but is that timeless Abyss which is now as it was in the beginning and ever shall be. To these three stations of the soul the later Upanishads add a fourth, which is simply so called, The Fourth. We have, then, four stations. First is the Waking Consciousness of everyday experience: 1 The full list of these attributes, called Upadhis or individualizing determinations, includes (i) all things and relations of the outer world, (2) the body, consisting of the gross elements, (3) the Indriyas^ viz., the five organs of sense and the corresponding five organs of action, (4) the Manas (mind) or Antahkarana (inner organ) which covers the under- standing and conscious will, the unified or seemingly unified principle of conscious Hfe, the c soul ' in a popular sense, and (5) the mukhya prana^ vital airs, the similarly unified or seemingly unified principle of unconscious life. All these are cut away by him who finds the Self, which is the Brahman, ' not so, not so.' 189 Buddha fif the Gospel of Buddhism When the soul is blinded by glamour (may a) It inhabits the body and accomplishes actions ; By women, food, drink, and many enjoyments, It obtains satisfaction in a waking condition* In the second station, of Dream-sleep : In the dream~state he moves up and down, And fashions for himself as god many forms? In the third station of Deep Sleep there is no empirical consciousness, but an identification with the Brahman. This condition corresponds to the 'Eternal Rest' of Western mysticism. This state of liberation is described in a beautiful passage of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, which we transcribe here as an example of the pre- Buddhist Vedantic literature : " But like as in yon space a falcon or an eagle, after he has hovered, wearily folds his pinions and sinks to rest, thus also hastens the Spirit to that condition in which, sunk to sleep, he feels no more desire, nor beholds any more dreams. That is his (true) form of being, wherein he is raised above longing, free from evil and from fear. For, like as one whom a beloved woman embraces, has no consciousness of what is without or what is within, so also the Spirit, embraced by the Self of Knowledge (the Brahman), has no consciousness of what is without or what is within. That is his form of being, wherein his longing is stilled, himself is his longing, he is without longing, and freed from grief. Then the father is not 1 Kaivalya Upanishad (12). This is living on the surface, empirical experience. 2 Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4, 3, Compare the state of the creative artist or personal god* 190 The Vedanta father, nor the mother mother, nor the worlds worlds, nor the gods gods, nor the Vedas Vedas . . . then is he unmoved by good, unmoved by evil, then has he van- quished all the torments of the heart. . . . Yet is he a knower, even though he does not know; since for the knower there is no interruption of knowing; because he is imperishable. . . . He stands in the tumultuous ocean as beholder, alone and without a second, he whose world is the Brahman. This is his highest goal, this is his highest joy, this is his highest world, this is his highest bliss." He who is not thus liberated, but is still subject to desire, After he has received reward For all that he has here performed, He comes back from that other world Into the world of deeds below. But " he who is without desire, free from desire, whose desire is stilled, who is himself his desire, his vital spirits do not depart ; but Brahman is he and into Brahman he resolves himself " : When every passion utterly is gone, That lurks and nestles in the heart of man, Then finds this mortal immortality, Then has he reached the Brahman, the Supreme. Of this liberation, the natural fruit in this life is asce- ticism, and thus "This knew those of old, when they longed not for descendants, and said : * Why should we wish indeed for descendants, we whose self is the universe?* And they ceased from the longing after children, from the longing after possessions and from the longing after 191 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism the world, and wandered forth as beggars. For longing for children is longing for possessions, and longing for possessions, is longing for the world; for one like the other is merely longing. But He, the Atman, is Not thus* not thus" There is another station, called the Fourth, transcending alike Non-being and Being. This station is indicated in the * Om f logion, and corresponds to the Western con- ception of Eternal Rest and Eternal Work as simultaneous aspects of the Unity. Precisely how this station differs from Deep Sleep will be apparent from the verses of Gaudapada : Dreams and sleep belong to the two first \ A dreamless sleep is the possession of the third* Neither dreams nor sleep does he who knows it Asctibe to the fourth. The dreamers knowledge is false* The sleeper knows nothing at all. Both go astray ; where all this vanishes There the fourth state is reached. It is in the beginningless illusion of the world That the soul (indeed) sleeps : when it (in sooth) awakes. Then there awakes in it the eternal. Timeless and free from dreams and sleep alike. * These lines are post-Buddhist, but represent a perfectly logical development of the conception of the Brahman indicated as eternal knower, without object, in the phrase just quoted, " Yet is he a knower, even though he does not know ; since for the knower there is no interruption 1 Here the usage of the symbols of waking and sleeping is reversed the true awakening is a sleeping to the world. 192 The Vedanta of knowing, because he is imperishable." This phrase, it may be noticed, vividly recalls the saying of the Buddha regarding the after-death state of him who has attained Nibbana : " But to say of a Brother who has been so set free by insight : * He knows not, he sees not,' that were absurd!" 1 The object of the Upanishad teaching, then, is to remove our ignorance, for ignorance lies at the root of desire, and desire, implying lack, is a mark of imperfection, and cannot characterize the highest state. The knowledge which is opposed to ignorance, as light to darkness, consists in the realization of the unity of the one which is not so, not so. This knowledge is not the means of liberation, it is liberation itself. He who attains to the realization * I am the Brahman ' not, of course, who merely makes the verbal statement knowing himself to be the totality of all that is, has nothing to desire or fear, for there is nought else to fear or to desire, nor will he injure any being, for no one injures himself by himself. He who has reached this understanding continues to exist, for the consequences of his former deeds are still valid in the empirical world of causality ; but life can no longer deceive him. His former works are burnt away in the fire of knowledge. He knows that his body is not * his ' body nor his works *his* works; and when he dies, his Self goes nowhere where it is not already, nor may he ever again be subject to the limitations of individual existence. A s rivers run and in the deep Lose name and form and disappear^ So goes, from name and form released^ The wise man to the deity. 1 cf. supra, p. 124. 193 Buddha &? the Gospel of Buddhism Here the Buddhist thinker must ever bear in mind that * the deity, 5 in passages like this, refers to the Brahman which is * not so/ and not to any personal god : precisely as the Buddhist himself is constrained by the necessity of language to symbolize Nibbana as ' Bliss ' and the like. Of Brahman and Buddhist it may well be said, as it may be said of all religions in the deepest application Thou goest thine ', and I go mine Many ways we wend ; Many days and many ways, Ending in one end. Many a wrong, and its curing song : Many a word, and many an inn : Room to roam, but only one home For all the world to win. II. SAMKHYA There exists another system, the Samkhya, noc, like the Upanishads, the creation of a school, but known to us as formulated by one sage, of the name of Kapila ; from whom most likely the name of Kapilavatthu, the city of Buddha's birth and youth, is derived. It is not without significance in this connexion that Buddhism seems to have arisen in a quarter where Samkhya ideas were dominant, and to have borrowed very considerably from them , and the fact that the Samkhya is really the chief source of Bud- dhist modes of thought, gives to this system considerable importance for our study. By contrast with thejnonistic idealism of the Upanishads, which define the Atman or Punisha (spirit) as the sole reality, the Samkhya is an explicit dualism, postulating the eternal reality of Purusha and Prakriti, spirit and nature ; the Samkhya moreover 194 Samkhya speaks of a plurality of Purushas or spirits, whereas the Purusha of Vedantic thought is one and indivisible. Nature is the naturally undifferentiated equilibrium of the three qualities sattva> rajas* and tamas* ' goodness, passion, and inertia'; 1 evolution results from the proximity of spirit. The first product of differentiation is buddhi, * reason ' ; then ahamkara* * the conceit of individuality ' ; and from this on the one hand the five subtle and five gross elements, and on the other manas* 'mind' or * heart,' and the outer and inner organs of sense. These, together with soul constitute the twenty-five categories of the Samkhya. That which migrates from body to body is not the spirit, for this is unconditioned, but the characteristic body, the individual 'soul/ consisting of buddhi, ahamkara, manas and the inner and outer organs of sense, bearing the impressions (samskaras* vasanas) of its previous deeds, and obtaining a new physical body in precise accordance with their moral worth. The individual Purusha the jlva is unaffected, even in its state of bondage; even its apparent consciousness of subject and object is a delusion. It is the * inner man,' the *soul' antahkarana* viz. buddhi, ahamkara and manas moved by the attached spirit shining all unconsciously upon it, which falsely imagines itself to be an ego ; in this complex * soul ' arise conceptions of pleasure and pain, love and hate ; these it projects upon the Spirit or Self, which it thus knows'only through a glass, darkly. Such a vicious circle of life is perpetuated for ever, only temporarily interrupted by the cosmic rhythm of involution and evolution, evolution and involution, in successive aeons (kalpas). But some few there are who, after many births, attain to saving knowledge : with the 1 More strictly, the extremes and the mean. 195 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism axe of reason is felled the tree of the egoism of the 'soul,* and the axe too being cast away, the bond of Spirit and Matter is severed the Spirit is evermore single (kaivalya) no more involved in the wheel of birth and death (samsara). Whoever fully understands this point of view, will be prepared to understand the cardinal doctrines of Buddhism, which differ chiefly from those of the Samkhya in their tacit denial of Purusha, or perhaps we should rather say, in their refusal to discuss aught but the nature of the 'soul* and the practical means of deliverance; Buddhism and the Samkhya, with the Vedanta no less, are agreed that pleasure and pain are alike suffering for the impermanence of any pleasure constitutes an eternal skeleton at the feast. ///. YOGA Cease but from thine own activity, steadfastly fixing thine Eye upon one point Behmen A third system, which was well known, though not yet expounded in full detail before the time of Buddha, is that of Yoga, or Union. This is a discipline designed to secure the deliverance contemplated in the Samkhya. It has a practical aspect, which is partly ethical and partly physiological; and a * kingly' part, consisting of the three phases of meditation, dharana^ dhyana> and samadhi, in which by concentration of thought the distinction of subject and object is overreached, and the soul becomes aware of its eternal separateness from reason (buddhi) and its conformations (samskaras), and becomes for ever single (kaivalya). The system differs from the Samkhya and from early Buddhism in that it is not atheistic that is to say, it recognizes an Overlord (Isvara), who is a 196 Yoga particular and exalted purusha, or individual soul, by whom the devotee may be aided on the way of emanci- pation; but this Isvara is by no means essential to the system, and is but one of the many objects of meditation which are suggested to the student. The spiritual exercises of the Buddhist contemplative are taken over almost unchanged from Brahmanical sources, and for this reason it is not necessary to repeat here what has already been said on this subject; but it may be useful to illustrate from a quite distinct source what is the significance of accomplished Yoga, in the following passage from Schelling's Philosophical Letters upon Dogmatism and Criticism : "In all of us there dwells a secret marvellous power of freeing ourselves from the changes of time, of with- drawing to our secret selves away from external things, and of so discovering to ourselves the eternal in us in the form of unchangeability. This presentation of ourselves to ourselves is the most truly personal experience, upon which depends everything that we know of the supra- .sensual world. This presentation shows us for the first time what real existence is, whilst all else only appears to be. It differs from every presentation of the sense in its perfect freedom, whilst all other presentations are bound, being overweighted by the burden of the object. . . . This intellectual presentation occurs when we cease to be our own object, when, withdrawing into ourselves, the perceiving image merges in the self-perceived. At that moment we annihilate time and duration of time : we are no longer in time, but time, or rather eternity itself (the timeless) is in us. The external world is no longer an object for us, but is lost in us." 197 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism BUDDHISM AND BRAHMANISM All writers upon Buddhism are faced with the difficulty to explain in what respect the teaching of Gautama differs from the higher phases of Brahman thought. It is true that the distinction appeared clear enough to Gautama and his successors; but this was largely because the Brahmanism against which they maintained their polemic was after all merely the popular aspect of Brahmanism. From a study of the Buddha 's dialogues it would appear that he never encountered a capable exponent of the highest Vedantic_idealism, such a one as Yajnavalkya or Janaka ; or if Alara_is to be considered such, Gautama took exception to the Atmanistic terminology rather than its ultimate significance. It appeared to Gautama and to his followers then and now that the highest truths especially the truth embodied by Buddhists in the phrase An-atta, no-soul lay rather without than within the BrUllimamcal circle. Many times in the history of religions has the Protestant, having thus easily carried the outer defences of an Orthodox faith, believed that there remained no other citadel. It may be, on the other hand, that Gautama knew of the existence of such a Brahman citadej where the truth was held, that the Atman is * not so, not so 9 but regarded the surrounding city as so hopelessly habituated to errors of thought and action, as to determine him rather to build upon a new site than to join hands with the beleaguered garrison. Perhaps he did not take into account that all such garrisons must be small, and did not foresee their final victory. However this may be, it is at least certain that at this period there existed no fundamental doctrinal opposition of Brahmanism and Buddhism ; but Gautama, 198 Buddhism & Brahmanism and some other Kshatriyas, and some Brahmans were alike engaged in one and the same task. At first sight nothing can appear more definite than the opposition of the Buddhist An-atta, * no-Atman,' and the Brahman Atman, the sole reality. But in using the same term, Atta or Atman, Buddhist and Brahman are talk- ing of different things, and when this is realized, it will be seen that the Buddhist disputations on this point lose nearly all their value. It is frankly admitted by Professor Rhys Davids that " The neuter Brahman is, so far as I am aware, entirely unknown in the Nikayas, and of course the Buddha's idea of Brahma, in the masculine, really differs widely from that of the Upanishads." * There is nothing, then, to show that the Buddhists ever really understood the pure doctrine of the Atman, which is 'not so, not so.' The attack which they led upon the idea of soul or self is directed against the conception of in time nf an unchanging individnalfty pf \}\* timeless spirit they do not speak, an^, y disposed of the theory of the AtmanJ Jfo reality both sides .were in agreement that thft-coul or- ege- -(manas, ^ vfflia.ny-.ete.) is ^mpl^x and whjlegfjhat which is 'not so* we know nothing. Buddhist dialectic, by the simile of the chariot, and so i Dialogues of the Buddha, i, p. 298 : C. A. F. Rhys Davids, Buddhism, p. 57 and yet in the latter place it is claimed that " it is the Atmanist position against which the Buddhist argument is drawn up." It is just this position which Gautama does not refer to. The parting of Gautama and Alara represents, perhaps, the greatest tragedy recorded in religious history. It has been remarked with perfect justice by A. Worsley : " It is possible that had Gautama chanced to meet, in his earliest wanderings, two teachers of the highest truth, the whole history of the Old World might have been changed." Concepts of Monism^ p. 197. 199 Buddha ^f the Gospel of Buddhism forth, is directed to show that things are ' Empty * ; when their component elements are recognized there is no remainder, but only the 'Void 5 ; he who realizes this, attains Nibbana and is freed. But we cannot distinguish this 'Void' or * Abyss 5 from that Brahman which is 'No thing.' It is true that the Vedanta speaks of many Atmans, three sr even five, and also that fo& jwatman or 'unconditioned Self in the individual* is sometimes confused with the individual ego or discriminating subject 1 (ahamkara or rijnana as if we should attribute individuality to a portion of space enclosed in a jar, forgetting that space is traceless ' and the jar alone has ' marks * ) ; but the strictly ion-animistic view is maintained in many other and more mportant passages. 2 Either Gautama was only ac- quainted with popular Brahinanism, or he chose to ignore ts higher aspects. At any rate, those whom he defeats n controversy so easily are mere puppets who never put orward the doctrine of the unconditioned Self at all. iautama meets no foeman worthy_of his steel, and for his reason the greater part of Buddhist polemic is un- ivoidably occupied in beating the air. This criticism ipplies as much to modern as to ancient exposition. Ve are told, for example, that Buddhism differs from Jrahmanism in its refutation of the " then current pessi- tiistic idea that salvation could not be reached on earth, nd must therefore be sought for in rebirth in heaven." 3 Jut if this idea was * current ' as a motif of the sacrificial itual, it certainly was not maintained by the Brahman lealists, ' That art thou ' denotes a present condition, Chandogya, 7, and Brihaddranyaka> 4, 3, 7 /;, etc. Chandogya, 8, 7-12, and Taittirlya, 2. T. W. Rhys Davids, Early BuddMsm, p. 55. DO Buddhism & Brahmanism and not a state to be reached after death. " To-day also," says the Brikadaranyaka (1,4, 10), " he who knows this I am Brahman becomes this universe; and even the gods have no power to prevent his so becoming ; for he is its Atman." In the face of utterances such as these we cannot admit the suggestion that the doctrine of salvation here and now was " never clearly or openly expressed in pre-Buddhist thought." x We also hear that "in all Indian thought except the Buddhist, souls, and the gods who are made in imitation of souls, are considered as exceptions/* and that "to these spirits is attributed a Being without Becoming, an individuality without change, a beginning without an end." 2 It is difficult to understand how any- one acquainted with Indian thought ' except the Buddhist* can make a statement of this kind. For it is clearly stated by Sankara that the word ' Indra' means " not an individual, but a certain position (sthana-msesha), some- thing like the word * General 9 ; whoever occupies the position bears the name." 3 This view is taken for granted in popular Hindu literature; it is commonly held, for example, that Hanuman is to be " the Brahma" of the next aeon. Moreover in the pre-Buddhist Upanishads the position of the personal gods is no more privileged than it is in Buddhism ; precisely as in Buddhism they are represented as standing in need of, and capable of receiving, saving knowledge, and in this respect they have no advantage over men. 4 Would it be possible to point to any Hindu text claiming for any personal deity as such a beginning without an end ? And 1 T. W. Rhys Davids, Early BuddMsm> p. 74. a Ibid, p. 55 (italics mine). 8 Deussen, System of the Vedanta^ p. 69. 4 Qhandogya^ 8, 7/ 2OT Buddha flf the Gospel of Buddhism if such texts could be discovered, could they be regarded as representing the Vedanta ? Most likely, in making the statements above quoted, modern exponents of Buddhism have confused the position of the Vedic deities (devas) in the Vedanta with the theism which is a subsequent development analogous to the theistic developments in Buddhism itself where individual gods (Ishvaras) appear as symbolical representatives of the Atman, taking the forms that are imagined by their worshippers. Buddhists lay considerable stress upon the refusal of Gautama to allow speculation on the after-death state of those who attain Nibbana, a refusal based on grounds of expediency. But there is nothing peculiar to Buddhism in the refusal to speculate, only in the Vedanta it is not based on * practical * grounds, but on the ground of the evident futility of any such inquiry, for, as the Sufis say, " this is too high for our limited and contingent being." Sankara, for example, preserves an old story, to the effect that a man of the name of Bahva was questioned by Vashkali on the nature of the Brahman, and that he kept silence. Being questioned a second and a third time, at last he replied: 'I teach you, indeed, but you do not understand ; this Brahman is silence.' For that Atman of which it is said ' That art thou ' is neither the body nor the individual * soul * ; it is not an object of knowledge,' but like the future state of the Arahat it lies on the other side of experience, invisible, unutterable, and unfathomable. That the Brahman cannot be known is again and again affirmed in the Upanishads : That to which no eye penetrates, nor speech, nor thought \ Which remains unknown, and we see it not, how can instruction therein be given 1 Kena Ufanishad^ 3. 2O2 Buddhism & Brahmanism Not by speech^ not by thought* not by sight is he compre- hended, He is I by this word is he comprehended, and in no other way. 3 - Much confusion still exists amongst exponents of Bud- dhism as to what the doctrine of the Atman really signifies. The formula of identity, 'That art thou/ is hopelessly distorted by Mrs Rhys Davids when she writes : "The anti~att& argument of Buddhism is mainly and consistently directed against the notion of a soul, which was not only a persistent, unchanging, blissful, trans- migrating, superphenqmenal being, but was also a being wherein the supreme Atman or world soul was immanent, one with it in essence, and as a bodily or mental factor issuing its fiat." 2 This confusion does not belong to the Vedanta as under- stood by the Vedantins. Buddhists have perhaps always made the mistake of underrating the intelligence of their opponents. We can only say that the high intrinsic value of Buddhist thought does not demand a spurious exalta- tion achieved by such comparison with merely popular or inconsistent forms of Brahmanism. The best must be compared with the best if the best is to be known. Buddhists very likely would point to passages such as 1 Kathaka UpanisJiad^ 6, 12, 13. 2 C. A. F. Ryhs Davids, Buddist Psychology, 1914, p. 31. The Atman is precisely that which does not transmigrate. The * fiat ' seems to refer to the conception of the Brahman as inner guide (antaryamin) and of the universe as the result of his command (prasasanam), e.g. in Brihadaranyaka^ 3, 8, 9. But the language is in this case misunder- stood. The 'inner guide 'is the categorical imperative, the highest form of conscience, and with this we may compare the Buddhist sanction ' because of Nibbana' ; while the ' command ' is that suchness (fatfva) whereby everything becomes as it becomes. 203 Buddha ^f the Gospel of Buddhism Bhagavad Glta, ii, 22 "As a man lays aside outworn garments and takes others that are new, so the Body- Dweller puts away outworn bodies and goes to others that are new" as animistic, notwithstanding that it is con- stantly asserted throughout the same chapter that That " is never born and never dies/* But Buddhists also are compelled to make use of current phraseology, and even though they do not mean to speak of the transmigration of a soul, they cannot avoid saying that when some one dies, 'he* is reborn in a new life, and in the Pitakas " we seem to see a belief in transmigration of a passing soul, just as much as we see it in the books of animistic creeds." * Buddhaghosha comments on this : " It would be more correct not to use popular modes of stating the case," and " we must just guard ourselves " from supposing that these modes express fact. The difficulties of lan- guage were the same for Buddhists and Brahmans ; and the same allowance must be made for both. We are told again that those Upanishads which are ranked as the oldest " show a naif animism : those ranked later reveal thought attained to relative maturity." 2 This is a complete inversion. It is true, indeed, that there are still many animistic passages in the old Upanishads ; but the formulas c Not so, not so/ and ' That art thou, 5 taken together, represent the highest attainment of Indian thought ; and the later Upanishads show, not an advance due to the absorption of Buddhist ideas, but a reaction in favour of ritual and realistic thought 3 a sort of High Church development not without parallels in Buddhism itself. 1 C. A. F. Rhys Davids, Buddhism, p. 137. 2 Rhys Davids, Dialogues of the Buddha, vol. ii, p. 48. 3 Deussen, Philosophy of the Upanishads, pp. 64, 65, 171 172, 204 Buddhism & Brahmanism Professor Rhys Davids says again " the highest teaching current before the Buddha, and still preserved in the pre-Buddhist Upanishads, was precisely about union with Brahma " ; we do not know how this statement is to be reconciled with the admission already cited that "the Buddha's idea of Brahma, in the masculine, really differs widely from that of the Upanishads/ 51 The * further shore 5 is a symbol of salvation used by both parties ; in the Tevijja Sutta Gautama suggests that it is employed by the Brahmans to mean union with Brahma (in the masculine), whereas he himself means Arahatta. Did he really interpret the Atmanist position in this manner? Or did he assume; we cannot believe that he assumed that this was the Brahman view for purposes of argument only, this was a single man's mis- understanding of an important point. The latter view should not be entertained. But it is undeniable that Gautama's dialogue is largely determined by controversial necessity. 2 The compilers of the Dia- logues had to represent the Buddha as victorious in argument, and they succeed by setting up a dummy which it is easy to demolish, while the object of nominal attack, the Atman theory, is never attacked. Gautama con- stantly accuses others of eel-wriggling, but in the Dia- logues he adopts the same method himself. The neuter 1 Dialogues of the Buddha^ vol. ii, p. 298. 2 In later writings Dr. Coomaraswamy came to realise that this position was untenable. In his Hinduism and Buddhism^ note 298 (p. 85) he says, "There can be no doubt whatever of the equations dhamma = brahma=*buddha = att8" and recognises that in some passages " dhamma is clearly the equivalent of brahma" He also uses the expressions dhammakaya brahmakaya, dhammabhuta brahmabhnta, dhammacakka brahmacakra, dhammayana brahmayana. Where brahma is not the masculine Brahma, though it may connote all that the Upanishadic neuter Brahman connotes that is still an open question. [I. B. HJ 205 Buddha ftf the Gospel of Buddhism Brahman is * quietly ignored,' and words are interpreted in new senses. In particular, the word atta (Atman) is used in a different sense from that of the Brahman atmanists, and thus an easy victory is secured by * thinking of something else.' The coining of the term An-atta to imply the absence of a perduring individuality is a triumph of ingenuity, but it should not blind us to the fact that the perduring Atman of the Brahmans was not an individuality at all. Jt may readily be granted that Buddhist thought is far more consistent than the thought of the Upanishads. The Upanishads are the work of many hands and extend over many centuries; amongst their authors are both poets and philosophers. The Buddhist Dhamma claims to be the pronouncement of a single teacher, and to have but one flavour. Gautama propounds a creed and a system, and it is largely to this fact that the success of his missionary activities was due. The Upanishads do not formulate a creed, though they constantly revert to the thought of unity; it is with Sankara, or Ramanuja, and not with the authors of the Upanishads that we must compare Gautama, if we would see a contrast of con- sistency with consistency. No one will assert that the Upanishads exhibit a consistent creed. But the explanation of their inconsistencies is historical and leaves the truth of their ultimate conclusions quite untouched. Gautama's Dhamma purports to be the considered work of a single individual, and it would be strange indeed if it failed to attain consistency; the Upanishads are the work of many minds, and a com- pendium of many thoughts. In other words, the literature of Indian thought, apart from Buddhism as interpreted by Buddhists, exhibits a continuous development, and knows no acute crises ; or rather, the real crises such as the identification of all gods as one, and the development of 206 Buddhism ^ Brahmanism the doctrines of emancipation and transmigration are not determined by names and dates, they were not announced as the Dharma of any one teacher, and they are only recognized in retrospection. Here there is a gradual process of 'thinking aloud,' wherein by stripping the self of veil after veil of contingency there is nothing left but the Abyss which is < not so, not so,' the * Ground ' of unity. From animism to idealism there is direct development, and it is for this reason that we meet with primitive terminologies invested with a new significance; moreover the old strata persist beneath the newest layers, and thus it is not only primitive terms, but also primitive thoughts which persist in the great complex that we speak of as Brahmanism. But this does not mean that the highest of these thoughts is primitive, it means only that the historical continuity of thought is preserved in the final system, and that system remains adapted to the intelligence of various minds. Sankara, writing long afterward, and looking back on this development as it had so far proceeded, very clearly perceived this complexity of thought in the Upanishads, and explained their inconsistencies and con- tradictions by the brilliant generalization in which the scriptural teachings are divided into absolute or esoteric truth (para vtdyd], and relative or exoteric truths (apara vidya). With this clue in our hands we are able to regard the whole Aupanishadic literature as a process of thought, culminating in certain well-defined formulae, and we can distinguish the poetic and symbolic nature of many other passages which do not the less refer to truth because they speak in parables. The necessities of controversy may have prevented the Early Buddhists from taking any such extended view of their * opponent's J teachings ; or it may be that with the best will, it would have been impossible so early and so close to the actual development to synthesize 207 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism the whole body of Indian speculation. However this may be, we find in point of fact that the essential thought of the Upanishads is never grasped by the Early Buddhists, and is sometimes but obscurely apprehended by modern exponents. In Buddhism great stress is laid on the doctrine of the Mean, both from the standpoint of ethics and of truth. In the latter case it is, as usual, the phenomenal world alone which comes under discussion : Gautama repudiates the two extreme views, that everything is, and that every- thing is not, and substitutes the thought that there exists only a Becoming. 1 It is due to Gautama to say that the ab- stract concept of causality as the fundamental principle of the phenomenal world is by him far more firmly grasped and more clearly emphasized than we find it in the early Upanishads ; nevertheless the thought and the word ' Becoming' are common to both, and both are in agreement that this Becoming is the order of the world, the mark of organic existence, from which Nibbana, or the Brahman (according to their respective phraseology) alone is free. Where a difference of outlook appears is in the fact that the Buddha is content with this conclusion, and condemns all further speculation as unedifying; and thus, like Sankara, he excludes for ever a reconciliation of eternity and time, of religion with the world. The same result is reached in another way by those Vedantists of the school of Sankara who developed the doctrine of Maya in an absolute sense 2 to mean the absolute nonentity of the phenomenal world, contrasted with the only reality of the Brahman which alone is. This is one of the two extreme views rightly repudiated by Gautama, 1 Samyutta Nikaya^ xxii, 90, 16. 2 Svetasvatara Upanishad> 4, 9-10. 208 Buddhism and Brahmanism but there is agreement to this extent that both Gautama and the Mayavadins reject the unreal world of Becoming, either because it is inseparable from Evil, or simply because it is unreal. But the interpretation of the term Maya to signify the absolute nonentity of the phenomenal world, if it belongs to the Vedanta at all, 1 is comparatively late ; and even in the Rig Veda we find another thought expressed, in which the whole universe is identified with the Eternal Male/ 2 afterward a recognized symbol of the Atman, The same idea finds many expressions in the Upanishads, notably in the saying, * That art thou.' Here in place of, or side by side with the thought, * Not so, not so,* we have the equally true consideration of totalistic philosophy, that there is No thing which That Brahman is not: That Brah- man, which is No thing, is at the same time All things. To dismiss the world of Becoming as a simple nonentity, is a false extreme, as rightly pointed out alike by Gautama, and in Isa Upanishad, 1 2. It is quite true that things have no self-existence as such, for Becoming never stops ; but the process of Becoming cannot be denied, and as it cannot have a beginning, so it cannot have an end. There is thus asserted from two points of view an irre- concilable opposition of Becoming and Being, Samsara and Nirvana, This and That. Over against these extremes there appears another doctrine of the Mean, entirely distinct from that of Gautama which merely asserts that Becoming, and not either Being nor non- 1 Which is to be doubted. The conception of the absolute nonentity of the phenomenal world is entirely contrary to many passages in Brihadaranyaka and Chandogya, as well as to the Brahma Sutra, i, 2, which asserts that 'Everything is Brahman.' It is not the 'world, 7 but the extension of the world in time and space the contraction and identification into variety which constitutes Maya. This is the Vedanta according to Ramanuja* 2 Rig Veda, x, 90-2. 2O9 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism Being is the mark of this world. 1 This other Mean asserts that the Sole Reality, the Brahman, subsists, not merely as not-Becoming, but also as Becoming: not merely as the unregistrable, but also as that of which our registra- tion is and must be imperfect and incomplete. In truth, there are two forms of Brahman, that is to say " The formed and the unformed, the mortal and the immortal. The abiding and the fleeting, the being and the beyond"* The Brahman is not merely nirguna, in no wise, but also sarvaguna, 'in all wise; ' and he is saved attains Nir- vana knows the Brahman who sees that these are one and the same, that the two worlds are one. Empirical truth (apara vidya) is then not absolutely un- true, but merely relatively true, while the absolutely true (para vidya) embraces and resumes all relative truth; seen from the standpoint of our empirical consciousness it is veritably the Real that is reflected through the door- ways of our five or six senses, and takes the forms of our imagination. Here the phenomenal world is not without significance, but has just so much significance as the degree of our enlightenment allows us to discover in it. " If the doors of perception were cleansed everything would appear to man as it is, infinite." From this point of view the doctrine of A vidya or Maya, ignorance or glamour, does not and should not assert the absolute nonentity and insignificance of the world, but merely that as we see it empirically, extended in the order of space, time and causality, it has no static 1 This world is the unknowable as we know it. Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, 2, 3, i. 210 2 Buddhism and Brahmanism existence as a thing in itself: our partial vision is false in so far, and only in so far, as it is partial. This position is obscured in Buddhism, and likewise in the system of Sankara, by the emphasis which is laid on Becoming as a state to be avoided; and this hedonistic outlook which finds logical expression in monasticism and puritanism has occupied the too exclusive attention of modern students. Too exclusive, for it is not this one-sided view of life, but the doctrine of the identity of this world and that, which can and does afford the key to the historical development of the Indian culture, the most remarkable characteristic of which appears in a general apprehension of the indivisibility of the sensuous and the spiritual. Another, and ethical Mean is put forward by Gautama as the Middle Path between extremes of self-mortification and self-indulgence. But here again it must be recog- nized that this is not really a middle path, and that it remains, in contrasting the bright state of the Wanderer with the dark state of the Householder, if not at all morbidly ascetic, nevertheless unmistakably a rule of abstention, rather than moderation. Certain actions and certain environments are condemned as bad in themselves. Gautama hardly contemplates the possibility that freedom may also be attained by those who are still engaged in worldly activities, nor that this freedom must depend on absence of motif rather than absence of activity; the Jnana Marga is for him the only way. 1 It is justly pointed out by Oldenberg that "there was 1 Not only does he not perceive that the wish to avoid Dukkha is in ' itself a desire, and as such a hindrance, but still less does lie see that the fear of pleasure even as it may come unsought is a still more subtle bondage. 211 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism nothing in Buddha's attitude generally which could be regarded by his contemporaries as unusual, he had not to introduce anything fundamentally new; on the contrary, it would have been an innovation if he had undertaken to preach a way of salvation which did not proceed on a basis of monastic observances." * The first systematic expression of such an 'innovation,* of which the source and sanction are to be found in the already old doctrine of the identity of This and That, Becoming and not- Becoming, is in the Bkagavad Gtta. This is variously dated as between 400 B.C. and A.D. 200, but whatever remodelling it may have undergone it can hardly be doubted that its essential thought is the recog- nition of Karma Yoga and Bhakti Yoga side by side with Jnana Yoga as * means' of salvation : " It was with works that Janaka and others came into adeptship; thou too shouldst do them, considering the order of the world ... as do the unwise, attached to works, so should the wise do, but without attachment, seeking to establish order in the world." " He who beholds in Work No-work, and in No-Work Work, is the man of understanding amongst mortals ; he is in the rule, a doer of perfect work. . . . Free from attachment to the fruit of works, everlastingly contented, unconfined, even though he be engaged in Work he does not Work at all." " Casting off all thy Works upon Me with thy mind on the One over Self, be thou without craving and without 1 Buddha^ English translation, ed. 2 (1904), p. 119. It is true that the layman Arahat is not altogether unknown to Early Buddhism (twenty- one are mentioned in the Anguttara Nikaya^ iii, 451, and Suddhodana, Gautama's father is also specially mentioned), but the fulfilment of worldly duties, however selflessly, was never preached as a way of salvation 212 Buddhism and Brahmanisrn thought of a Mine, and with thy f even calmed, engage in battle." l Thus it is that even laymen may attain to perfect freedom, in a life obedient to vocation, if only the activity be void of motive and self-reference. The degree of bondage implied in various environments depends entirely on the outlook of the individual, and not on any good or bad quality intrinsic in any thing or any status. Bondage and deliverance are alike to be found in the home and in the forest, and not more nor less in one than the other ; every- thing alike is Holy (in terms of Buddhism, 'Void'), and men and women are not less so than mountains or forests. Above all, this reconciliation of religion with the world is practically manifested in selfless obedience to vocation (sva-dkarma) ; for notwithstanding this world is but a Becoming, it has a meaning which cannot be fathomed by those who turn their backs upon it in order to escape from its pains and elude its pleasures. Precisely the same crisis that we here speak of as dis- tinguishing Buddhism from Brahmanism, is passed through in the history of Brahmanism itself, and must, perhaps, be passed over in the history of every school of thought that attains to its full development. It had been held amongst Brahmans, as it had been also for a time assumed by Gautama, that salvation must be sought in penance (tapas) and in the life of the hermit. Gautama intro- duced no radical change 2 in merely insisting on the futility of carrying such disciplines to a morbid extreme. But in 1 Bhagavad-GTta, ch. Ill, IV. 2 Perhaps we ought to say no change at all, for it would be difficult to point to any early or important BrShmanical text advocating a mental and moral discipline more severe than that of the Buddhist Brethren; on the contrary, the Upanishads constantly insist that salvation is won by knowledge alone, and that all else is merely preliminary. 213 Buddha ^f the Gospel of Buddhism Brahman circles, that wide movement of thought, of which Gautama reveals but a single phase and a single stage, culminates in a very different theory of tapas, which is expressed as follows in the Manava Dharma-sastra : "The tapas of the Brahmana is concentrated study; of the Kshatriya, protection of the weak; of the Vaishya, trade and agriculture; of the Sudra, service of others. . . . For the Brahman, tapas and vidya, self-denial andwisdom, are the only means to the final goal, etc." * ~"~~ This is merely another version of fRe^doctrine of vocation already referred to. It is perfectly true that the more deeply we penetrate Buddhist and Brahmanical thought, the less is it. possible tcTdivide them If, for example, we imagine the question propounded to a teacher of either persuasion, * What shall I do to be saved ? ' the same answer would be made, that salvation veritably consists in overcoming the illusion that any such ego *I* exists, and the way to this salvation would be described as the overcoming of craving. These are indeed* the answers of Christ and of all other great Masters : He that loses his life shall save it ; Thy will, not mine. It is when we proceed to formulate a discipline that distinctions arise, and here that the idiosyncrasy of the individual teacher becomes most evident. Gautama's scheme of the Ariyan Eightfold Path, as a complete scheme, is universal only in the sense that in all lands and in all ages there are to be found indi- viduals of rationalist and ascetic temperament kindred The fruit of asceticism as such, as of all other deeds, must be finite in itself: "Of a truth, O Gargi," says Yajnavalkya, himself a hermit, "he who does not know this imperishable One, though in this world he should distribute alms and practise penance (tapas tapyate) for many a thousand years, thereby wins but finite good." JBrihad- aranyaka Upanishad, 3, 8, 10. 214 Buddhism and Brahmanism with his own. If we liken Early Buddhism to a Lesser Raft,' then we may justly speak of Brahmanism, as of the 'Mahayana,' as a Greater Vessel; each conveys the traveller to his desired haven, but the larger vessel serves the needs of a greater variety of men. Here is to be sought the explanation of that final * victory' of Hind- duism and of the Mahayana, which the exponents of Early Buddhism, and of the * pure religions of the Vedas ' have agreed to regard as a descent into superstition and priestcraft. It had been, and always remained to a certain extent a principle of Brahmanism to impart the highest teachings only in pupillary succession to those who show themselves qualified to receive it. The fact of Gautama's ignorance of the Atmanist position may be taken to prove that in his day the doctrine of the Atman was still an esoteric truth known only to the few. Gautama, on the other hand, while he refused to answer insoluble problems of escha- tology and metaphysics, expressly says that he does not reserve an esoteric doctrine ; all his sermons were preached in public, and accessible to laymen and to women. He did not reserve to twice-born castes the right to enter the spiritual order, and it has been estimated that some ten per cent, of the Brethren were * low-born ' ; for him, the only true Brahman is the man who excels in wisdom and goodness. On these grounds it is sometimes assumed that Gautama was a successful social reformer who broke the chains of caste and won for the poor and humble a place in the kingdom of the spirit. But this view of the mission of Gautama, whose kingdom, like that of Jesus, was not of this world, is unhistorical. Had Gautama been of those who seek to improve the world by good government, and 215 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism to secure their just rights for the poor and despised, he would not have left his kingdom to become a homeless wanderer, he would not have preferred the status of a teacher to that of a powerful prince; there need have been no * Great Renunciation/ but history would have recorded another Asoka, fulfilling the ideal of an earthly Dharmaraja such as Rama. But Gautama, when he saw the sick and the dying did not think of suffering as due to external causes, or to be alleviated by the bettering of the social order ; he saw that suffering was bound up with the ego-asserting nature of man, and therefore he taught nothing but a mental and moral discipline designed to root out the conceit of an I. It is made abundantly clear that Gautama regards the state of the world as hopeless and irremediable, and while the truth of this is in one sense undeniable, and the Brahmans were equally aware of it, 1 and of the relativity of all ethics, nevertheless it is they, and not Gautama, who have seen a profound significance in the maintenance of the order of the world, considering it a school where ignorance may be gradually dispelled. It is they who occupied themselves with the development of an ideal society, which they anticipated in the Utopias of Valmiki, Vyasa, and Manu. Had any Buddhist pointed out to a Brahman philosopher the impossibility of estab- lishing a millennium, the latter would have replied that he found significance in the task itself, and not in its achievement. There is too a fallacy in the very suggestion that Gautama could have broken the chains of caste; for notwithstanding that those skilful craftsmen, the Brahman Utopists referred to, were already at work, the so-called chains were not L For example, ato 'nyad artam, 'What is distinct from Him (the Brahman), that is full of suffering.' Brihadaranyaka, 3, 4, 2, etc. 216 Buddhism and Brahmanism yet forged. The caste system as it now exists is a sort of * Guild Socialism ' supported by theocratic sanctions and associated with eugenics; each caste being self-governing, internally democratic, and having its own norm (sva~ dharma). We need not discuss the merit or demerit of this system here; but it must be realized that in the time of Gautama the system had not yet crystallized. What already existed was a classification of men according to complexion, in the 'Four Varnas' or colours; each of these included many groups which afterward crystallized as separate castes. Moreover at this time the position of the Brahmans as leaders of society was not yet secure ; we cannot regard the indications of the Brahman Utopists as historical, and it would appear that the status of Brahmans in the age of Gautama was somewhat lower than that of Kshattriyas. At any rate in Magadha the intellectual rank of the latter is sufficiently indicated by their achieve- ments, such as the formulation of the Atman doctrine, the institution of wandering friars, the An-atta doctrine of Gautama, the teachings of Mahavlra, and so forth. Nevertheless it is clear that the Brahmans claimed in- tellectual and ethical superiority; and no one acquainted with Indian history can doubt that Indian Brahmans- born have to a large extent deserved by character and achievement the respect in which they have always been held ; it is easy to criticize, as did Gautama, the empirical method of determining Brahmanhood by birth, but this was the most practical method that could be devised, and the world has yet to discover a better way to secure in all its affairs the guidance of the wisest. Gautama does not offer any alternative to the doctrine of Brahmanhood by birth, regarded as the solution to a social problem the means of preserving a given type of high culture. He 217 Buddha ^P the Gospel of Buddhism was able to ignore this problem, only because he wished that all higher men should * wander alone/ At the same time it is not only Gautama who sought to use the term Brahman in a purely ethical sense; the same usage is found in the pre-Buddhist Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (iii, 5, i) and elsewhere. Even where, as in Manu, the doctrine of Brahmanhood by birth is taken for granted, we find it said that the Brahman is born for dharma alone and not for wealth or pleasure; while the (later) Mdrkandeya Purana lays down that nothing is per- mitted to be done by the Brahman "for the sake of enjoy, ment." And with regard to the remaining point, the right of the lowest classes to share in the kingdom of the spirit : this was by no means first or only asserted by Gautama ; it is, for example, taken for granted in the Samanna-phala, Sutta, that religious orders already existing in the time of Gautama and not founded by him admitted even slaves to their ranks, and in many others of the Buddhist Suttas there are mentioned Sudras who became Wanderers, as if it were a common occurrence and well recognized. And if the Brahmans were careful to exclude the unculti- vated classes from hearing the Vedas repeated and taught, this applied almost entirely to the older Vedic literature, in its priestly and magical aspects ; although the doctrine of the Atman may have been known to few in the days of Gautama (and it is in the nature of things that such doctrines must long remain in the hands of the few) nevertheless the Brahmanical objection to Sudra initia- tion does not extend to the Upanishads, which constitute, that part of the Veda which alone in itself suffices for salvation. Moreover, we have to know that the Brahmans themselves, by means of the Epics (and especially the Bhagavad Glta) and the Puranas, deliberately undertook 218 Buddhism and Brahmanism and accomplished that education of the whole Indian people, women included, which has made them, from the standpoint of character and courtesy, if not of technical literacy, the most educated race in the world. lofomparing Buddhism (the teaching of Gautama, that is) with Brahmanism, we have then to understand and take into account the difference of j^grpbtem ^sought to bef solved^r^Qatitama is concerned witS salvation ancf nothingbut salvation : theBrahmans likewise see in that summum bonum the ultimate significance of all existence, but they also take into account the things of relative importance ; theirs Js_ji_gligion both of Eternity and Time, while Gautama looks upon Eternity alone. It is not really fair to Gautama or* to tHe"BrIhmans to contrast their D hat ma ; for they do not seek to cover the same ground. We must compare the Buddhist ethical ideal with the (identical) standard of Brahmanhood expected of the Brahman born; we must contrast the Buddhist monastic system with the Brahmanical orders ; the doctrine of Anatta with the doctrine of the Atman, and here we shall find identity. But if the exponents of Buddhism insist on confining the significance of Buddhism to what is taught by Gautama, we must point out at the same time that it stands for a restricted ideal, which contrasts with Brahmanism as a part contrasts with a whole; Buddhism might well have been accounted by Vijnana Bhikshu as a ' seventh darsana.' Just as with the history of the various Brahmanical darsanas, so with Buddhism as a sect there remains much to be accomplished in historical elucidation and in exegesis and interpretation. But a more important task has hardly been envisaged : the connected historical study of Indian thought as an organic entirety. Just as we now 219 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism see clearly that Indian architecture cannot be divided into styles on a sectarian basis, but is always primarily Indian, so also with the philosophic and religious thought. There is no true opposition of Buddhism and Brahmanism, but from the beginning one^ geneFarmovement, of "mafty closely related mo^mentir ^The integrity of Indian thought, moreover, would not be broken if every specifi- cally Buddhist element were omitted; we should only have to say that certain details had been less adequately elaborated or less emphasized. To some Buddhists may be recommended the words of Asoka : "He who does reverence to his own sect while dis- paraging the sects of others wholly from attachment to his own, with intent to enhance the splendour of his own sect, in reality by such conduct inflicts the severest injury on his own sect. Concord, therefore, is meritorious, to wit, hearkening and hearkening willingly to the Dharma accepted by others." To sum up : Gautama does not enunciate the conception of Freedom as a state independent of environment and vocation ; the unity of his system, like that of Haeckel's, is only achieved by leaving out of account the Unregis- trable; in ^majority of fundamentals he does not differ from the Atmanists, although he gives a far clearer statement of the law of causality as the essential mark of the world of Becoming. The greater part of his polemic, however, is wasted in a misunderstanding. Implicit in Brahman thought from an early period, on the other hand, and forming the most marked features of later Indian mysticism achieved also in the Mahayana, but with greater difficulty is the conviction that ignorance is maintained only by attachment, and not by such actions as are void of purpose and self-reference ; and the thought 220 Buddhism and Brahmanism that This and That world, Becoming and Being, are seen to be one by those in whom ignorance is destroyed* In this identification there is effected a reconciliation of religion with the world, which remained beyond the grasp of Theravada Buddhists. The distinctions between early Buddhism and Brahmanism, however practically import- ant, are thus merely temperamental ; fundamentally there is absolute agreement that bondage consists in the thought of I and Mine, and that this bondage may be broken only for those in whom all craving is extinct. 1 In all^ssentials Buddhism and Brahmanism form a single system. 1 Those who claim that Buddha did not teach the extinction of desire do him less than justice. Even Nietzsche teaches a nishkama dharma when he says : c Do I then strive after happiness ? I strive after my work!' 221 PART IV : THE MAHAYANA /. BEGINNINGS OF THE MAHAYANA A FIRST Buddhist council was summoned in the reign of Asoka about 240 B.C. with a view to the settlement of sectarian disputes. It is clear that heresies had already arisen, for certain of Asoka's edicts are concerned with the unfrocking of schismatics ; and, indeed, we know that heresies were promulgated even during the life of the Buddha himself. In course of time we find that a large number of sects developed, all equally claiming to be followers of the true doctrine, just as has been the case with Christianity and every other great faith. The Buddhist sects are divided into two main groups: those of the Hmayana ('The Little Raft 5 ) and the Mahayana ('The Great Raft*). The former, whose scriptures are preserved in Pali, claim to represent the pure original teaching of Gautama, and do in the main preserve its rationalistic, monastic and puritanical features to a marked extent: the latter, whose scriptures are in Sanskrit, interpret the doctrine in another way, with a development that is mystical, theological and devotional. The Hinayana has maintained its supremacy mainly in the South, particularly in Ceylon and Burma; the Mahayana mainly in the North, in Nepal aad China. But it is misleading to speak of the two schools as definitely Southern and Northern. Let us recall that according to the orthodox Hinayana, Gautama was regarded as a man like other men, and differed from others only in his intuitive penetration of the secret of life and sorrow, in his perception of things as they really are, as an eternal Becoming; with that knowledge he attained Nibbana, and for him the causes 222 Beginnings of the Mahayana of birth were extinguished. Other men, to whom the Way has been revealed by the Buddha 1 or his disciples, can attain to Arahatta and Nibbana, but are not regarded as Buddhas, nor is it suggested that every creature may ultimately reach the condition of Buddhahood. Specu- lation is forbidden as to whether the Buddha and the Arahats exist or do not exist after the death of the body. If now we survey the canonical scriptures as a whole written down in Pali about 80 B.C. we shall find that they include certain elements which are more or less inconsistent with this pure intellectual doctrine which appears to have formed the very consistent Dhamma of Gautama himself. In the dialogue of Pasenadi, king of Kosala, with the nun Khema, regarding the state of the Buddha after death, we find: "Released, O great king, is the Perfect One from this, that his being should be gauged by the measure of the corporeal world: he is deep, immeasurable, unfathomable as the great ocean. 5 ' 2 Here is at least the suggestion that the undetermined, the unregistrable, that which is other than Becoming, yet ts, though beyond our ken or understanding. In another place, answering the question: What kind of being is a Buddha? Gautama himself is made to reply that he is neither a Deva, nor a Gandharva, nor a Yakkha nor a man, but is a Buddha. It may be intended only that a Buddha must not be regarded as an ordinary man; never- theless there is clearly to be seen here an opening for the later Mahayana doctrine of the Body of Transformation. We find, again (in the Udana, viii, 3), the following 1 The Buddha discovered the Way himself. The disciples and the various listeners to whom he revealed it, thereby enabling them, in their turn, to teach it to others, can therefore attain Arahatta and Nibbana, but in no sense are they Way-finding supreme Buddhas, nor is it suggested that every creature may ultimately reach the condition of Buddhahood. [I. B. H.] 2 Avyakala Samyutta, i. 227 Buddha fif the Gospel of Buddhism passage, which sounds more like a Brahmanical than a Buddhist saying : "There is, O Bhikkhus, an unborn, unoriginated, un- created, unformed. Were there not, O Bhikkhus, this unborn, unoriginated, uncreated, unformed, there would be no escape from the world of the born, originated, created, formed." It may also be remarked that the most definite and uni- versal verbal profession of the Buddhist or convert runs : 'I take refuge in the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Sangha' (collectively, the * Three Jewels')- 1 No doubt this formula was first used in the lifetime of Gautama, whose own person may well have seemed to the world- weary a haven of refuge, no less than the Gospel and the Order. But after his death, what can the words, ' I take refuge in the Buddha,' have meant to a layman, or any but the most critical of the Brethren? It did not mean the Buddha's gospel, for that is separately mentioned. Those women and others whom we see in the sculptured reliefs of Sanchi and Amaravati, kneeling with passionate devotion and with offerings of flowers before an altar, where the Buddha is represented by the symbols of the footprints or the wisdom-tree (Plate U) what did it mean to them to take refuge in the Buddha ? This phrase alone must have operated with the subtle power of hypnotic suggestion to convince the worshipper and the majority of men are worshippers rather than thinkers by nature that the Buddha still was, and that some relation, however vaguely imagined, could be estab- lished between the worshipper and Him-who-had-thus- attained. It was, almost certainly, the growth of this 1 The doctrine of devotion also occurs in another form, where almost in the words of the Bhagavad Gzfa, Gautama is made- to say that those who have not yet even entered the Paths "are sure of heaven if they have love and faith towards Me." MajjMma Nikaya, 22. 224 Beginnings of the Mahayana conviction which determined the development of Buddhist iconolatry and all the mystical theology of the Mahayana. It is the element of worship which changed the monastic system of Gautama into a world-religion. In the earliest Buddhist literature the word 'Buddha' was undeniably coming to be used in a technical sense, as various references show. 1 Moreover, Gautama some- times speaks of himself as ' Buddha/ 2 and when he and others do so the term means the Enlightened One, the Awakened. The Buddha is more than the greatest and wisest of Arahats. In his capacity as samma-sam- buddha, the fully Self- Awakened One, he is the Shower of the Way which his disciples may tread, thus becoming Way-followers. But in the course of time the term Buddha came to mean a less exalted, less rare type of being. In addition, while the term Bodhisatta, or Wisdom- Being, was first used of Gotama between the Going- forth and the attainment of Nibbana, it later came to mean a Buddha-designate any being destined to become a Buddha in this or some future life. This doctrine of the Bodhisatta is extensively developed in the book of the 550 Jatakas, or Birth Stories, which recount the edifying histories of Gautama's previous existences as man, animal, or fairy. When the Brahman Sumedha rejects the thought of crossing alone the sea of Becoming and registers the vow to attain omniscience in order that he may also convey other men, and gods, across 1 E.g.) " He is possessed of unwavering confidence in the Buddha, and thinks he is ... the Buddha, the Exalted One, bhagavan" Majjkima Ntkaya, i. 37, 179, etc.)- There was also the Triple Jewel of Buddha, Dhamma and Sangka\ and it was realised that a Buddha was a rare sight in the world (Suttanipata^ 560, and cf. Vtnaya, ii. 155. Many other references could be cited). 2 Anguttara, ii. 39, Suttanipata, 559. Also, after "Brahma's en- treaty" it is recorded, once in words attributed to Gautama, that he surveyed the world with a Buddha's eye, buddhacakkhuna (Vinaya, i. 6, Majjhima Nik&ya, i. 169.). Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism that sea, he speaks already in the sense of the Mahayana. Associated with the doctrine of the Bodhisatta is that of previous Buddhas, who are duly named in the Mahapadana Sutta, and the details of their lives set forth according to a set formula; their number is three or six or, according to a later account, twenty-four. Of future Buddhas, only the Bodhisatta Metteyya,the personification of Loving, kindness, is mentioned, and that in the Milinda Panka, which is a little later than the canonical scriptures. It is possible that the three former Buddhas who are said to have appeared in the present age, but very long ago, represent a memory of actual teachers before Buddha : in any case, the theory that all Buddhas teach the same doctrine is of considerable interest, and it corresponds to the Brahman view of the eternity of the Vedas, which are heard rather than invented by successive teachers. This belief in the timeless unity of truth, which is shared by Indians of divers persuasions, is of much significance. Without referring in greater detail to the mythological and magical elements which enter into even the earliest Buddha literature, it will suffice to point out that this literature already includes, as partly indicated above, the germs of most of those doctrines which are elaborated to a far greater extent in the dogmas of the ' Great Raft.' The development of that religion from the basis of early Buddhist psychology is nearly parallel to the development of mediaeval Hinduism on the basis of the pure idealism of the Upanishads. //. SYSTEM OF THE MAHAYANA Le plus saint, c'est le plus amant. RUYSBROECK The Mahayana or Great Vessel is so-called by its adherents, in contradistinction to the Hlnayana or .little Vessel of 226 System of the Mahayana primitive Buddhism, because the former offers to all beings in all worlds salvation by faith and love as well as by knowledge, while the latter only avails to convey over the rough sea of Becoming to the farther shore of Nibbana those few strong souls who require no external spiritual aid nor the consolation of Worship. The Hmayana, like the * unshown way ' of those who seek the * nirguna Brahman? is exceeding hard; 1 whereas the burden of the Mahayana is light, and does not require that a man should immediately renounce the world and all the affections of humanity. The manifestation of the Body of the Law, says the Mahayana, is adapted to the various needs of the children of the Buddha; whereas the Hlnayana is only of avail to those who have left their spiritual childhood far behind them. The Hlnayana emphasizes the necessity of saving knowledge, and aims at the salvation of the individual, and refuses to develop the mystery of Nibbana in a positive sense; the Mahayana lays as much or greater stress on love, and aims at the salvation of every sentient being, and finds in Nirvana the One Reality, which is 6 Void ' only in the sense that it is free from the limitations of every phase of the limited or contingent experience of which we have empirical knowledge. The Buddhists of the primitive school, on the other hand, naturally do not accept the name of the * Lesser Vessel,* and as true Protestants they raise objection to the theological and aesthetic accommodation of the true doctrine to the neces- sities of human nature. Opinions thus differ as to whether we may regard the Mahayana as a development or a degeneration. Even the 1 In the words of Behmen (Supersensual Life, Dialogue 2) : But, how hard it is for the Will to sink info nothing, to attract nothing, to imagine nothing. 227 Buddha ftP the Gospel of Buddhism professed exponents of the Hmayana have their doubts. Thus in one place Professor Rhys Davids speaks of the Bodhisattva doctrine as the <5mz#0-weed which " drove out the doctrine of the Ariyan path," and the weed "is not attractive : " 1 while in another, Mrs Rhys Davids writes of the cool detachment of the Arahat, that perhaps " a yet more saintly Sariputta would have aspired yet further, even to an infinite series of rebirths, wherein he might, with ever- growing power and self-devotion, work for the furtherance of the religious evolution of his fellows," adding that "social and religious ideals evolve out of, yea, and even beyond the finished work and time-straitened vision of the Arahants of old." 2 Perhaps we need not determine the relative value of either school : the way of knowledge will ever appeal to some, and the way of love and action to others, and the latter the majority. Those who are saved by knowledge stand apart from the world and its hopes and fears, offering to the world only that knowledge which shall enable others to stand aside in the same way : those others who are moved by their love and wisdom to perpetual activity in whom the will to life is dead, but the will to power yet survives in its noblest and most impersonal forms attain at last the same goal, and in the meanwhile effect a reconciliation of religion with the world, and the union of renunciation with action. The development of the Mahayana is in fact the over- flowing of Buddhism from the limits of the Order into the life of the world; into whatever devious channels Buddhism may have ultimately descended, are we to say that that identification with the life of the world, with all its consequences in ethic and aesthetic, was a misfortune? 1 Dialogues of the Buddha, ii, p. i. 2 Psalms of the Brethren^ p. xlviii. 228 System of the Mahayana Few who are acquainted with the history of Asiatic culture would maintain any such thesis. Mahayanists do not hesitate to describe the Hinayana ideal as selfish; and we have indicated in several places to what extent it must in any case be called narrow. But the Mahayanists not to speak of Christian critics of the Hmayana do not sufficiently realize that a selfish being could not possibly become an Arahat, who must be free from even the conception of an ego, and still more from every form of ego-assertion. The selfishness of the would- be Arahat is more apparent than real. The ideal of self- culture is not opposed to that of self-sacrifice : in any per- fectly harmonious development these seemingly opposite tendencies are reconciled. To achieve this reconciliation, to combine renunciation with growth, knowledge with love, stillness with activity, is the problem of all ethics. Curiously enough, though its solution has often been attempted by oriental religions, it has never been so clearly enunciated in the west as by the * irreligious ' Nietzsche the latest of the mystics whose ideal of the Superman combines the Will to Power (cf. pranidhana) with the Bestowing Virtue (cf. kwuna). If the ideal of the Private Buddha seems to be a selfish one, we may reply that the Great Man can render to his fellows no higher service than to realize the highest possible state of his being. From the Unity of life we cannot but deduce the identity of (true) self-interest with the (true) interest of others. While therefore the Mahayanists may justly claim that their system is indeed a greater vessel of salvation in the sense of greater convenience, or better adaptation to the needs of a majority of voyagers, they cannot on the other hand justly accuse the captain and the crew of the smaller ship of selfishness. Those 229 Buddha &P the Gospel of Buddhism who seek the farther shore may select the means best suited to their own needs : the final goal is one and the same. The most essential part of the Mahayana is its emphasis on the Bodhisattva ideal, which replaces that of Arahatta, 1 or ranks before it. Whereas the Arahat strives most earnestly for Nirvana, the Bodhisattva as firmly refuses to accept the final release. "Forasmuch as there is the will that all sentient beings should be alto- gether made free, I will not forsake my fellow creatures/' 2 The Bodhisattva is he in whom the Bodhicitta or heart of wisdom is fully expanded. In a sense, we are all Bodhi- sattvas, and indeed all Buddhas, only that in us by reason of ignorance and imperfection in love the glory of the Bodhi-heart is not yet made manifest. But those are specially called Bodhisattvas who with specific determina- tion dedicate all the activities of their future and present lives to the task of saving the world. They do not merely contemplate, but feel, all the sorrow of the world, and because of their love they cannot be idle, but expend their virtue with supernatural generosity. It is said of Gautama Buddha, for example, that there is no spot on earth where he has not in some past life sacrificed his life for the sake of others, while the whole story of his last incarnation related in the Vessantara Jataka, relates the same unstinting generosity, which does not shrink even from the giving away of wife and children. But Buddha- hood once attained, according to the old school, it remains for others to work out their salvation alone: "Be ye lamps unto yourselves," in the last words of Gautama. According to the Mahayana, however, even the attainment of Buddhahood does not involve indifference to the sorrow 1 Arahat " perfect-ed " "finish-ed" implying a state to be worked for. 2 Avatamsaka Sutra. 230 V AvalokitesVara (Padmapawi, lotus bearer). (Nepal, ninth or tenth century. Copper gilt and jewelled with jacinth. 0.305 m. high. Boston Museum of Fine Arts.) AvalokitesVara (Padmapitoii), standing figure in tribhahga (three bends) stance. The right hand varada mudrfi (boon-bestowing), the left hand (which System of the Mahayana of the world; the work of salvation is perpetually carried on by the Bodhisattva emanations of the supreme Buddhas, just as the work of the Father is done by Jesus. The Bodhisattvas are specially distinguished from the Sravakas (Arahats) and Pacceka-Buddhas or * Private Buddhas/ who have become followers of the Buddha * for the sake of their own complete Nirvana ' : x for the Bodhisattvas enter upon their course " out of compassion to the world, for the benefit, weal, and happiness of the world at large, both gods and men, for the sake of the complete Nirvana of all beings. . . . Therefore -they are called Bodhisattva Mahasattva." 2 A doctrine specially associated with the Bodhisattva ideal is that of the parivarta, or turning over of ethical merit to the advantage of others, which amounts very nearly to the doctrine of vicarious atonement. Whereas in early Buddhism it is emphasized that each life is entirely separate from every other (also a Jaina doctrine, and no doubt derived from the Sarnkhya conception of a plurality of Purushas), the Mahayana insists on the interdependence and even the identity of all life; and this position affords a logical basis for the view that the merit acquired by one may be devoted to the good of others. This is a peculiarly amiable feature in late Buddhism; we find, for example, that whoever accom- plishes a good deed, such as a work of charity or a pilgrimage, adds the prayer that the merit may be shared by all sentient beings. 1 Hindus would express this by saying that Sravakas and Pacceka- Buddhas choose the path of Immediate Salvation : Bodhisattvas, that of Ultimate Salvation. ' The deferred path of Liberation is the path of all Bhaktas. It is the path of compassion or service.' P. N. Sinha, Commentary on the JBhagavafa Purana, p. 359. 2 Saddharmapundarika Sutra. 231 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism It will be seen that the doctrine of vicarious merit involves the interpretation of karma in the first and more general sense referred to on page 108. No man lives to himself alone, but we may regard the whole creation (which groaneth and travailleth together) as one life and there- fore as sharing a common karma, to which every indi- vidual contributes for good or ill. Notwithstanding from the individualist standpoint it may appear both false and dangerous to limit the doctrine of purely individual responsibility, it is not so in fact; the good or evil of the individual also affects others, and rather increases his responsibility than lightens it. There is no mystery in karma; it is simply a phase of the law of cause and effect, and it holds as much for groups and communities as for individuals, if indeed, individuals are -not also com- munities. Let us take a very simple example : if a single wise statesman by a generous treatment of a conquered race secures their loyalty at some future time of stress, that karma accrues not merely to himself but to the state for ever; and other members of the community, even those who would have dealt ungenerously in the first instance, benefit undeniably from the vicarious merit of a single man. Just in this sense it is possible for hero-souls to bear or to share the burden of the karma of humanity. By this conception of the taking on of sin, or rather, the passing on of merit, the Mahayana has definitely emerged from the formula of psychic isolation which the Hinayana inherits from the Samkhya. In other words, the great difficulty of imagining a par- ticular karma passing from individual to individual, with- out the persistence even of a subtle body, is avoided by the conception of human beings, or indeed of the whole universe, as constituting one life or self. Thus 232 System of the Mahayana it is from our ancestors that we receive our karma, and not merely from 'our own' past existences; and whatsoever karma we create will be inherited by humanity for ever. The following account of karma is given by a modern Mahayanist : "The aggregate actions of all sentient beings give birth to the varieties of mountains, rivers, countries, etc. They are caused by aggregate actions, and so are called aggregate fruits. Our present life is the reflection of past actions. Men consider these reflections as their real selves. Their eyes, noses, ears, tongues, and bodies as well as their gardens, woods, farms, residences, servants, and maids men imagine to be their own possessions; but, in fact, they are only results endlessly produced by innumerable actions. In tracing everything back to the ultimate limits of the past, we cannot find a beginning: hence it is said that death and birth have no beginning. Again, when seeking the ultimate limit of the future, we cannot find the end." 1 It may be pointed out here just how far the doctrine of karma is and is not fatalistic. It is fatalistic in the sense that the present is always determined by the past ; but the future remains free. Every action we make depends on what we have come to be at the time. But what we are coming to be at any time depends on the direction of the will. The karmic law merely asserts that this direction cannot be altered suddenly by the forgiveness of sins, but must be changed by our own efforts. If ever the turning of the will appears to take place suddenly, that can only be due to the fruition of long accumulated latent tendencies (we constantly read 1 S. Kuroda, Outlines of the Mahayana Philosophy. 2 33 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism that Gautama preached the Law to such and such a one, forasmuch as he saw that his or her intelligence was * fully ripe,' and in these cases conversion immediately results). Thus, if we are not directly responsible for our present actions, we are always responsible for our character, on which future actions depend. On this account the object of Buddhist moral discipline is always the accumu- lation of merit (punya), that is to say the heaping up of grace, or simply the constant improvement of character. The Mahayanist doctors recognize ten stations in the spiritual evolution of the Bodhisattva, beginning with the first awakening of the Wisdom-heart (Bodhicitta) in the warmth of compassion (karuna) and the light of divine knowledge (prajfia). These stations are those of 'joy,' * purity/ 'effulgence,' 'burning,' 'hard to achieve,' 'showing the face, 1 'going afar off,' 'not moving to and fro,' 'good intelligence,' and 'dharrna- cloud/ It is in the first station that the Bodhisattva makes those pregnant resolutions (pranidhana) which determine the course of his future lives. An example of such a vow is the resolution of Avalokitesvara not to accept salvation until the least particle of dust shall have attained to Buddahood before him. It may be mentioned that the course (c&riya) of the Bodhisattva has this advantage, that he never comes to birth in any purgatory, nor in any unfavourable condition on earth. Nor is the Bodhisattva required to cultivate a disgust for the conditions of life ; he does not practise a meditation on Foul Things, like the aspirant for Arahatta. The Bodhisattva simply recognizes that the conditions of life have come to be what they are, that it is in the nature (tattva> bhutatha^ suchness) of things to be so, and he takes them accordingly for what they are 234 System of the Mahayana worth. This position is nowhere more tersely summed up than in the well-known Japanese verselet Granted this dewdrop world be but a dewdrop world. This granted^ yet . . . Thus the new Buddhist law was in no way puritanical, and did not inculcate an absolute detachment. Pleasure indeed is not to be sought as an end in itself, but it need not be rejected as it arises incidentally. The Bodhisattva shares in the life of the world; for example, he has a wife, that his supernatural generosity may be seen in the gift of wife and children, and for the same reason he may be the possessor of power and wealth. If by reason of attachment and this association with the world some venial sins are unavoidably committed, that is of little consequence, and such sins are wiped away in the love of others : the cardinal sins of hatred and self-thinking cannot be imagined in him in whom the heart of wisdom has been awakened. It must not, however, be supposed that the Mahayana in any way relaxes the rule of the Order ; and even in the matter of the remission of sins of the laity it is only minor and inevitable shortcomings that are considered, and not deliberate deeds of evil. And if the Mahayana doctors preach the futility of remorse and discouragement, on the other hand they are by no means quietists, but advocate a mysticism fully as practical as that of Ruysbroeck. The idea of the Bodhisattva corresponds to that of the Hero, the Superman, the Saviour and the Avatar of other systems. In this connexion it is interesting to note that legitimate pride the will to power, conjoined with the bestowing virtue is by no means alien to the Bodhisattva character, but on the contrary, " In respect 235 Buddha ^f the Gospel of Buddhism of three things may pride be borne man's works, his temptations, and his power," and the exposition follows : " The pride of works lies in the thought ' for me alone is the task.' x This world, enslaved by passion, is powerless to accomplish its own weal ; then must I do it for them, for I am not impotent like them. Shall another do a lowly task while I am standing by ? If I in my pride will not do it, better it is that my pride perish. . . . Then with firm spirit I will undo the occasions of un- doing ; if I should be conquered by them, my ambition to conquer the threefold world would be a jest. I will conquer all ; none shall conquer me. This is the pride that I will bear, for I am the son of the Conqueror Lions ! 2 . . . Surrounded by the troop of the passions man should become a thousand times prouder, and be as unconquer- able to their hordes as a lion to flocks of deer ... so, into whatever straits he may come, he will not fall into the power of the Passions. He will utterly give himself over to whatever task arrives, greedy for the work . . . how can he whose happiness is work itself be happy in doing no work ? He will hold himself in readiness, so that even before a task comes to him he is prepared to turn to every course. As the seed of the cotton-tree is swayed at the coming and going of the wind, so will he be obedient to his resolution ; and thus divine power is gained." 3 1 Cf. Blake: But when Jesus was crucified, Then was perfected His galling pride. 2 Buddha is often spoken of as Conqueror Qina a term more familiar in connexion with the followers of Mahavira, the ' Jainas ') and as Lion (Sakyasinha;, the lion of the Sakya race). 8 From the Bodhicary&vatara of Shanti Deva, translated by L. D. Barnett, 1902. 236 w Maitreya Bodhisattva. (Sixth century. Bronze. The Colombo Museum, Ceylon. 46.5 cm. high, without modern stand.) Bodhisattva Maitreya (Pali, Metteyya) in trivanka or tri- bhanga stance of three bends, hands in vitarka mudra (teach- ing gesture) and vara mudra (boon-bestowing). Maitreya is the future Messiah, he is yet to descend to preach the Law at the end of our kalpa (aeon). Mahayana Theology We may remark here an important distinction between the Mahayana and the Hinayana lies in the fact that the former is essentially mythical and unhistorical ; the believer is, indeed, warned precisely as the worshipper of Krishna is warned in the Vaishnava scriptures that the Krishna Llla is not a history, but a process for ever unfolded in the heart of man that matters of historical fact are without religious significance. On this account, notwithstanding its more popular form, the Mahayana has been justly called 'more philosophical ' than the Hinayana, "because under the forms of religious or mystical imagery it expresses the universal, whereas the Hinayana cannot set itself free from the domination of the historical fact." * An important dogmatic distinction, the meaning of which will be made clear as we proceed, is also found in the new interpretation of the Three Refuges. In the Hina- yana these are the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Sangha; in the Mahayana they are the Buddhas, the Sons of the Buddhas (Bodhisattvas both in the special and in the wider sense), and the Dharmakaya. Mahayana Theology The Mahayana is thus distinguished by its mystical Buddha theology. This must not be confused with the popular and quite realistic theology of Sakka and Brahma recognized in early Buddhism. The Mahayana Buddha theology, as remarked by Rhys Davids, " is the greatest possible contradiction to the Agnostic Atheism," which 1 R. F. Johnston, Buddhist Ckina^ p. 114. Most likely Christianity also in the near future will succeed in breaking the ' entangling alliance ' of religion and history, from which the mystics have already long emerged. There cannot be an absolute truth which is not accessible to direct experience. 237 Buddha ftP the Gospel of Buddhism is the characteristic of Gautama's system of philosophy. But this opposition is simply the inevitable contrast of religion and philosophy, relative and absolute truth, and those who are interested in the science of theology, or are touched by art, will not be likely to agree in denouncing the Buddha gods as the inventions "of a sickly scholasticism, hollow abstractions without life or reality": 1 in this contingent world we live every day by relative truths, and for all those who do not wish to avoid the world of Becoming at the earliest possible moment these relative truths are far from lacking in life or reality. The Mahayana as a theistic faith is so only to the same extent as the Vedanta, that is to say it has an esoteric aspect which speaks in negative terms of a Suchness and a Void which cannot be known, while on the other it has an exoteric and more elaborate part in which the Absolute is seen through the glass of time and space, contracted and identified into variety. This development appears in the doctrine of the Trikaya, the Three Bodies of Buddha. These three are (i) the Dkarmakaya^ or Essence-body; (2) its heavenly manifestation in the Sambhogakdya^ or Body of Bliss ; and (3) the emanation, transformation, or projection thereof, called Nirmanakaya, apparent as the visible individual Buddha on earth. This is a system which hardly differs from what is implied in the Christian doctrine of Incarnation, and it is not unlikely that both Christianity and the Mahayana are inheritors from common Gnostic sources. Thus the Dharmakaya may be compared to the Father; the Sambhogakaya to the figure of Christ in glory ; the Nirmanakaya to the visible Jesus who announces in 1 T. W. Rhys Davids, Buddhism (S.P.C.K., an early edition, pp. 206, 207), 238 Mahayana Theology human speech that * I and my Father are One.' Or again with the Vedanta : the Dharmakaya is the Brahman, timeless and unconditioned; the Sambhogakaya is realized in the forms of Isvara; the Nirmanakaya in every avatar. The essence of all things, the one reality of which their fleeting shapes remind us, is the Dharmakaya. The Dharmakaya is not a personal being who reveals himself to us in a single incarnation, but it is the all- pervading and traceless ground of the soul, which does not in fact suffer any modification but appears to us to assume a variety of forms : we read that though the Buddha (a term which we must here understand as impersonal) does not depart from his seat in the tower (state of Dharmakaya), yet he may assume all and every form, whether of a Brahma, a god, or a monk, or a physician, or a tradesman, or an artist ; he may reveal himself in every form of _ art and industry, in cities or in villages: from the highest heaven to the lowest hell, there is the Dharmakaya, in which all sentient beings are one. The Dharmakaya is the impersonal ground of Buddhahood from which the personal will, thought and love of innumerable Buddhas and Bodhisattvas ever proceed in response to the needs of those in whom the perfect nature is not yet realized. In some of the later phases of the Mahayana, however, the Dharmakaya is personified as Adi-Buddha (sometimes Vairocana) who is then to be regarded as the Supreme Being, above all other Buddhas, and whose sakti is Prajnaparamita. Dharmakaya is commonly translated * Body of the Law, 5 but it must not be interpreted merely as equivalent to the sum of the scriptures. The fathomless being of Buddha- hood, according to the Mahayana, is something more than the immortality of the individual in his doctrine; 239 Buddha fif the Gospel of Buddhism we must understand Dharma here as the Om or Logos. To understand the meaning" of Dharmakaya more fully we must take into account also its synonyms, for example, Svabhavakaya, or * own-nature body* (like the Brahmanical svarupa, ' own-form'), Tattva* or * such- ness,' Sunya> 'the void' or * abyss/ Nirvana, 'the eternal liberty,' Samadhikaya, ' rapture-body,' Bodhi> ' wisdom,' Prajna^ * divine knowledge,' Tathagata-garbha, 'womb of those who attain.' Some of these terms must be further considered. The 'Void, 5 for example, is not by any means 'naught,' but simply the absence of characteristics ; the Dharmakaya is 'void* just as the Brahman is 'not so, not so,' and as Duns Scotus says that God 'is not improperly called Nothing/ It is precisely from the undetermined that evolution is imaginable; where there is nothing there is room for everything. The voidness of things is the non- existence of things-in-themselves, on which so much stress is rightly laid in early Buddhism. The phrase ' Own- nature body ' emphasizes the thought ' I am that I am/ Bodhi is the 'wisdom-heart 1 which awakens with the determination to become a Buddha. ' Suchness ' may be taken to mean inevitability, or spontaneity, that the highest cause of everything must needs be in the thing itself. A special meaning attaches to the name Prajfia or Prajna- paramita, viz. Supreme Knowledge, Reason, Understand- ing, Sophia; for the name Prajnaparamita is applied to the chief of the Mahayana scriptures, or a group of scriptures, signifying the divine knowledge which they embody, and she is also personified as a feminine divinity. As one with the Dharmakaya she is the knowledge of the Abyss, the Buddhahood in which the individual Bodhi- 240 Nirvana sattva passes away. But as Reason or Understanding she is Tathagata-garbha, the Womb or Mother of the Buddhas, and the source from which issues the variety of things, both mental and physical. 1 In Hindu phraseology, she is the Sakti of the Supreme, the power of manifestation inseparable from that which Manifests : she is Devi, Maya, or Prakriti, the One who is also the many. "In the root she is all-Brahman ; in the stem she is all-illusion ; in the flower she is all-world; and in the fruit all-liberation" (Tantra Tattva)? Nirvana The Mahayana doctrine of Nirvana requires somewhat lengthier consideration. We have seen that in earlier 1 Precisely as the Zero may be regarded as a Womb, being the sum and source of an infinite series of plus and of minus quantities, such as the Extremes or Pairs of opposites of the relative world. 2 " Nature ariseth," says Behmen, " in the outflown word of the divine perception and knowledge." " The wisdom is the great Mystery of the divine nature ; for in her the powers, colours and virtues are made manifest ; in her is the variation of the power and the virtue, viz. the understanding: she is the divine understanding that is, the divine vision, wherein the Unity is manifest ... in which the images of angels and souls have been seen from eternity . . . therein have lain all things hi one only ground, as an image lieth hid in a piece of wood before the artificer doth carve it out and fashion it " (The Clavis). "At the time of creation Brahma, Vishnu, Mahesvara and other devas are born of the body of that beginningless and eternal Kalika, and at the time of dissolution they again disappear in Her " (Nirvana Tantra). Kalika is one of the many names of Devi, Sakti, Prakriti, ParvatI, Kali, etc : she is as Uma, the " wisdom that hath eaten up my mind and rid me of the sense of I and my " (Tayumanavar) : " who with the absolute inseparably is blended as flower with scent, as sun and ray, as life and body . . . her children, all living things with ceaseless bliss ambrosial nourishing " (Chidambara Swami). It is not without significance that the traditional name of Gautama's earthly mother is Maya. 241 Buddha ^f the Gospel of Buddhism Buddhism Nibbana meant the dying out of the fires of passion, resentment, and infatuation, and the dissolution of the individual personality, but what more or less than this it meant metaphysically, Gautama would not say, and he plainly condemns speculation as unedifying. Mahayanists however do not hesitate to develop a far- reaching idealism, similar to that of the Vedanta, and logically develop the early Buddhism phenomenalism into a complete nihilism which, as we have seen, declares that the whole world of becoming is truly void and unreal. This ' nihilism 5 is carried to its farthest extreme in works such as the Prajnap&ramitas* and the Vajracchedika Sutra : we read, for example, in the latter work : "And again, O Subhuti, a gift should not be given by a Bodhisattva, while he still believes in the reality of objects ; a gift should not be given by him while he yet believes in anything ; a gift should not be given by him while he still believes in form ; a gift should not be given by him while he still believes in the special qualities of sound, smell, taste, and touch. . . . And why ? Because that Bodhisattva, O Subhuti, who gives a gift, without believing in anything, the measure of his stock of merit is not easy to learn ! " And this denial of entity is carried to the logical extreme of denying the existence of scripture : "'Then what do you think, O Subhuti, is there any doctrine that was preached by the Tathagata ? ' Subhuti said: ' Not so, indeed, O Worshipful, There is not any- thing that was preached by the Tathagata.' " 1 So called because they treat at length of the Six Perfections (Para- mitas) of a Bodhisattva, and the last of these in particular. The Six Perfections are dana> charity; stla, morality; khsanti, meekness; en&rgy ; dhyana, meditation \ and prajna, wisdom. 242 Nagarjuna Even more striking is the famous ' Middle Path of Eight Noes ' of Nagarjuna : " There is no production (utpada), no destruction (uccheda), no annihilation (nirodha), no persistence (sasvata), no unity (ekartha)) no plurality (nanartha)> no coming in (agamana)^ and no going forth (nirgamd)" This view, however, is not properly to be understood as mere nihilism ; it is constantly emphasized that things of all kinds neither exist nor do not exist. We may under- stand this * middle view ' in either of two ways : as the doctrine that of that which is other than phenomenal there cannot be any predication of existence or non-existence ; or as the doctrine that from the standpoint of the Abso- lute, things have no existence, while from the standpoint of the Relative, they have a relative being. Nagarjuna The latter view is distinctly maintained by Nagarjuna, who, like Asvaghosa, must have been originally a Brah- man, and lived about the end of the second century A.D. The Middle View just mentioned is set forth by him in the Madhyamika sutras. And here Nagarjuna gives a very clear answer to the objection that, if all be 'Void, 5 then the Four Ariyan Truths, the Order of Brethren, and Buddha himself must be considered to be and have been unreal : he meets the difficulty precisely as Sankaracarya meets the inconsistencies of the Upanishads, by saying that the Buddha speaks of two truths, the one Truth in the highest sense, absolute, the other a conven- tional and relative truth; he who does not comprehend the distinction of these cannot understand the deeper import of the teaching of the Buddha. 1 1 The Western student will of course meet with similar contradictions 243 Buddha ^P the Gospel of Buddhism The Mahayana is thus far from affirming that Nirvana is non-existence pure and simple ; it does not hesitate to say that to lose our life is to save it. Nirvana is positive, or positively is ; even for the individual it cannot be said to come to be, or to be entered into ; it merely comes to be realized, so soon as that ignorance is overcome which obscures the knowledge of our real freedom, which nothing has ever infringed, or ever can infringe. Nirvana is that which is not lacking, is not acquired, is not inter- mittent, is not non-intermittent, is not subject to destruction, and is not created, whose sign is the absence of signs, which transcends alike non-Being and Being. The Mahayana Nirvana cannot be better explained than in the words of the great Sufi Al-Hujwlri " When a man becomes annihilated from his attributes he attains to perfect subsistence, he is neither near nor far, neither stranger nor intimate, neither sober nor intoxicated, neither separated nor united; he has no name, or sign, or brand or mark" (Kashf al-Mak- JM&). It is the realization of the infinite love and infinite wisdom, where knowledge and love alike proclaim identity, that constitute this Nirvana. He in whom the Heart of Wisdom awakes, however, does not shrink from future rebirths, "but plunges himself into the ever rushing current of Samsara and sacrifices himself to save his fellow creatures from being eternally drowned in it." He in the Christian gospels. When Christ says 'I and my Father are One,' that is absolute truth ; when He speaks upon the cross as if * forsaken J by the Father, that is a relative truth only. When He says that Mary has chosen the good part that shall not be taken away from her, that is absolute; but when He commands us to render unto Caesar the things that are Caesar's, He recognizes again the realm of relativity. Here also it may be said that he who does not recognize the dis- tinction of relative and absolute truth, cannot be said to understand the gospel of Christ. 244 Mahayana Mysticism does not shrink from experience, for "just as the lotus- flowers do not grow on the dry land, but spring from the dark and watery mud, so is it with the Heart of Wisdom, it is by virtue of passion and sin that the seeds and sprouts of Buddhahood are able to grow, and not from inaction and eternal annihilation" (Vimala-klrti Sutra). Mahayana non-duality culminates in the magnificent paradox of the identity of Nirvana with the Samsara, the non-distinction of the unshown and the shown " this our worldly life is an activity of Nirvana itself, not the slightest distinction exists between them " (Nagar- juna, Madhyamika Sastra). This view is expressed with dramatic force in the aphorism, * Yas klesas so bodhi> yas samsaras tat nitvanam? That which is sin is also Wisdom, the realm of Becoming is also Nirvana. 1 One and the same is the heart of Suchness and the heart of Birth-and- Death 'what is immortal and what is mortal are harmoniously blended, for they are not one, nor are they separate* (Asvaghosha). If the truth is not to be found in our everyday experience, it will not be found by searching elsewhere. Mahayana mysticism It scarcely needs to be pointed out, though it is important to realize, that this is the ultimate position to which the mystics of every age and inheritance have ultimately returned. It'is that of Blake when he says that the notion 1 Mahayana monism is thus totalistic: it affirms the unreality of phenomena as such, but equally affirms their significance. This life is a dream, but not without meaning. There is no sanction for this doctrine in early Buddhism, and ia one place it is also condemned by Asvaghosha as born of the devil (The Awakening of Faith^ trans. T. Suzuki, page 137); perhaps it was sometimes misunderstood in the sense of * Let us eat, drink and be merry, for to-morrow we die.' 245 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism that a man has a body distinct from his soul must be expunged, and that it is only because the doors of per- ception are closed by ignorance that we do not see all things as they are, infinite. It is that of Kablr when he says " in the home is reality ; the home helps to attain Him who is real I behold His beauty everywhere"; and when he asks, "What is the difference between the river and its waves ; because it has been named as wave, shall it no longer be considered water ? " It is that of Behmen when he says the Enochian life " is in this world, yet as it were swallowed up in the Mystery ; but it is not altered in itself, it is only withdrawn from our sight and our sense ; for if our eyes were opened, we should see it " : 1 Paradise is still upon earth, and only because of our self-thinking and self-willing we do not see and hear God. 2 It is that of Whitman, when he says there " will never be any more perfection than there is now, nor any more of heaven or hell than there is now," and inquires, "Why should I wish to see God better than this day?" Strange and hard that paradox true I give \ Objects gross and the unseen soul are one. The Buddhas In the realm of absolute (paramartha) truth we may speak only of the Dharmakaya as void. But there exists also for us a realm of relative (samvritti) truth where the Absolute is made manifest by name and form ; to the 1 The Forty Questions. 8 The Supersensual Life, Dialogue i. Closely parallel to a passage of the Avatamsaka Sutra ; " Child of Buddha, there is not even one living being that has not the wisdom of the Tathagata. It is only because of their vain thought and affections that all beings are not conscious of this." 246 The Buddhas dwellers in heaven as Sambhogakaya, the Body of Bliss, and to those on earth as Nirmanakaya, the Body of Transformation. The Sambhogakaya is the Buddha or Buddhas regarded as God in heaven, determined by name and form, but omniscient, omnipresent, and within the law of causality, omnipotent. A Buddha, in this sense, is identical with the Brahmanical ' fsvara,' who may be worshipped under various names (eg* as Vishnu or as Siva), the worshipper attaining the heaven ruled by him whom he worships, though he knows that all of these forms are essentially one and the same. The Mahayana does in fact multiply the number of Buddhas indefinitely and quite logically, since it is the goal of every individual to become a Buddha. The nature of these Buddhas and their heavens will be best realized if we describe the most popular of all, whose name is Amitabha, or Amida. Amitabha Buddha rules over the heaven Sukhavati, the Pure Land or Western Paradise. With him are associated the historical Gautama as earthly emanation, and the Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara as the Saviour (Plate V). The history of Amitabha relates that many long ages ago he was a great king, who left his throne to become a wanderer, and he attained to Bodhisattvahood under the guidance of the Buddha, that is, the human Buddha then manifest j and he made a series of great vows, both to become a Buddha for the sake of saving all living things, and to create a heaven where the souls of the blessed might enjoy an age-long state of happiness, wisdom and purity. The eighteenth of these vows is the chief source of the popular development of Amidism, as the belief of 247 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism the worshippers of Amitabha is styled. This vow runs as follows : "When I become Buddha, let all living beings of the ten regions of the universe maintain a confident and joyful faith in me ; let them concentrate their longings on a re- birth in my Paradise; and let them call upon my name, though it be only ten times or less : then, provided only they have not been guilty of the five heinous sins, and have not slandered or vilified the true religion, the desire of such beings to be born in my Paradise will be surely fulfilled. If this be not so, may I never receive the perfect enlightenment of Buddahood." This is a fully developed doctrine of salvation by faith. The parallel with some forms of Christianity is very close. Amitabha both * draws' men to himself, and * sent f his son Gautama to lead men to him, and he is ever accessible through the holy spirit of Avalokitesvara. The efficacy of death-bed repentance is admitted ; and in any case the dying Amidist should contemplate the glorious figure of Amitabha, just as the dying Catholic fixes his eyes upon the Crucifix upheld by the priest who administers extreme unction. The faithful Amidist is carried immediately to heaven, and is there reborn with a spiritual body within the calyx of one of the lotuses of the sacred lake. But those of less virtue must wait long before their lotus expands, and until then they cannot see God. Those who have committed one of the five heinous sins, and yet have called on Amitabha's name, must wait for countless ages, a period of time beyond conception, before their flowers open; just as, according to Behmen, those souls that depart from the body "without Christ's body, hanging as it were by a thread," must wait for tjhe last day, ere they come forth. Another Mahayanist idfca. 248 The Buddhas that the heaven of a Buddha is coextensive with the universe, is also to be found in Behmen, who, to the question, " Must not the soul leave the body at death, and go either to heaven or hell?" answers, "There is verily no such kind of entering in ; forasmuch as heaven and hell are everywhere, being universally extended." Strictly speaking, the heaven of Amitabha cannot be identified with Nirvana, but is a ' Buddha-field,* where preparation for Nirvana is completed. The following Table will exhibit the complete scheme of Mahayana Buddhology : ADIBUDDHA I Central East South West North Buddhas: III II Vairocana Akshobya Ratnasambhava Amitabha Amoghasiddha Bodhisattvas : Samantabhadra Vajrap9.nl Ratnap5.nl Avalokitesvara Visvapni or Earthly Btiddhas: Padmap&ni Kakusandha Konagammana Kassapa Gautama Metteyya The Mahayana pantheon, however, is extended far beyond this simple scheme, to include more than five hundred divinities: in the words of Lafcadio Hearn, "a most ancient shoreless sea of forms incomprehensibly inter- changing and intermingling, but symbolizing the protean magic of that infinite Unknown that shapes and reshapes for ever all cosmic being. 5 ' Of all these divinities some further account is given below, but there must be men- tioned here Prajnaparamita, the Bodhisattvas Manjusri (Plate GG) and the Chinese Ti-tsang and Kwannon (Kwanyin, Plates KK, LL), and also the Taras or Saviouresses who are feminine divinities, recognized from about the sixth century A.D. as embodying the principle of 249 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism Grace in the Bodhisattvas. The full development of this pantheon takes place during the first twelve centuries A.D., though its beginnings are earlier. Its final elaboration in Lamaistic Buddhism continues later. We must now consider the Nirmanakaya, the plane of those Buddha-appearances which are emanated or pro- jected from the Sambhogakaya as magical earthly ap- paritions, a doctrine of revelation in response to the spiritual needs of sentient beings. We have already seen that at an early stage of Buddhism Gautama is already made to affirm that he is not a man, but a Buddha ; here, in a development similar to that of Christian Docetism, we find the view put forward that the earthly Buddhas are not living men, but ghosts or forms of thought, acting as vehicles of the saviour-will which led the Bodhisattva to the abyss of Buddhahood. In part, no doubt, this repre- sents an attempt to get over the logical difficulty presented by the continued survival of the person Gautama for many years after the attainment of that enlightenment which cuts the connecting bonds of the spiritual compound known as personality; this continuance has also been aptly compared to the continued spinning of the potter's wheel for some time after the hand of the potter has been removed, the final physical death of the body being likened to the subsequent stopping of the wheel. Convenient Means Intimately associated with the doctrine of emanation is that of Convenient Means (upaya) : " the Heart of Wisdom abiding in the Unity creates particular means of salvation" (Nagarjuna). The knowledge of these means is one of the perfections of Buddhahood, and is the power of response to the infinite variety of the spiritual needs of 250 Convenient Means sentient beings. The various forms which the divine Tathagata assumes, revealing himself in the right place, at the right time, and never missing the right opportunity and the right word these manifestations constitute the Nirmanakaya. To a certain extent the doctrine of upaya corresponds to the ready wit of such teachers as Buddha or Christ, who with little effort so effectually render aid to those who seek them, and no less effectually con- found their opponents : admirably illustrated, for example, in Gautama's dealing with Gotami the Slender, and in many well-known anecdotes of Jesus. Of either it may be said, He is the Answerer^ What can be answe^d he answers^ and what cannot be answe^d he shows how it cannot be answer* d. This is also a doctrine of the graduation of truth : faiths are not divided into the true and the false, but are so many rungs of the ladder, so many separate ladders, that lead to One Unknown. The doctrine of upaya implies the perfect understanding of human needs by that divine intelligence that knows no need in itself, save that implied in the saying, Eternity is in love with the productions of time the only reason we can allege for the desire of the One to become many. This perfect understanding, " as of father with son, comrade with comrade, lover with mistress," x does not clash with the intellectual recognition of the gods as man-made, and this the Hindus have beautifully recon- ciled with the idea of Grace, in the adoration " Thou that doest take the forms imagined by Thy worshippers" addressed, indeed, by Saivas to Siva, but no less appropriate to the thought of the Mahayana. The doctrine of upaya 1 Bhagavad Gita> xi, 44. 251 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism Is comparable also with the thought, " He makes himself as we are, that we may be as He is/* The arts and religions of the world are all so many upayas one source, one end, only with diversity of means. A second Mahayana school, in some respects divergent from the Madhyamika school of Nagarjuna, is the Yoga- cara school of Asanga and Vasubandhu. Here three kinds of knowledge are recognized in place of two; but two of these three are merely a subdivision of relative knowledge, into positive error and relative knowledge properly so-called. We have thus in place of samvritti asidi paramartka satya : (1) Parikalpita satya, for example, when we mistake a rope for a snake. (2) Paratantm satya, for example, when we recognize the rope as a rope. (3) Patispanna satya, when we recognize that 'rope* is a mere concept, and has no being as a thing in itself. Of which (i) and (2) are together samvritti and (3) is paramartha. The Yogacaras also maintain a form of idealism which differs from the absolute agnosticism of the Madhyamikas. According to the former, there does really exist a cosmic, not impersonal, Mind, called Alaya-vynana?- the All- containing, or Ever-enduring, Mind. All things in the universe rest in, or rather consist of this substrate. It is sometimes confused with the Suchness; but actually it corresponds rather to the saguna (qualified) than the nirguna (unqualified) Brahman of the Brahmans. It pro- vides the basis for a sort of Platonic idealism; for, according to the Yogacaras, it is in this Cosmic Mind that the germs of all things exist in their ideality. In 1 Hence the Yogacaras are commonly spoken of as Vijnanavadins. 252 Ch'an, or Zen Buddhism other words, the objective world consists entirely of mind- stuff, and it is the illusion born of ignorance that projects the real ideas into an external and phenomenal universe. ///. CtfAN, OR ZEN BUDDHISM We have so far set forth the Mahayana according to the Madhyamika school of Nagarjuna and the Yogacara school of Asanga, with illustration of the Sambhogakaya accord- ing to the sect of the Amidists, and with some notice of other special cults, particularly that of Avalokitesvara. We shall now notice at greater length another phase of the Mahayana, likewise of Indian origin, and of somewhat later development in China and Japan. This is the school of Bodhidharma, known in China as Ch'an, and in Japan as Zen Buddhism, from the Indian wordfoana or Dhyana already explained. This Ch'an, or Zen Buddhism, though in a practical and more or less intimate way associated with the cult of Amitabha, represents the more philosophical and mystic aspect of the Mahayana, and is essentially indif- ferent to iconolatry and to scriptural authority. This phase of Mahayana is little determined by special forms, and can scarcely be said to have any other creed than that the kingdom of heaven is in the heart of man. This school of thought most fully represents the Mahayana as a world religion; for however attractive and picturesque may be the imagery of Amitabha's Western Paradise, however tender the legendary histories of the deified Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, these visions of a material and sectarian paradise, and these personal divinities can claim universal acceptance no more than those of any other theistic system. Ch'an Buddhism differs from the orthodox and popular Mahayana of the theistic Sutras just as the teaching of Christ and of the Christian mystics 253 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism differs from the systematic Christianity of the Churches. Furthermore, it is in close alliance with Taoist philosophy, and constitutes not merely a religion, but the essential culture of the Far East, finding full expression not only In belief, but practically in life and art Ch'an Buddhism was founded in China by the patriarch Bodhidharma, claimed to be the twenty-eighth in apostolic succession from Gautama, in the year 527. This great man, whose Chinese ministry lasted for only nine years, and whose personality has yet impressed itself so deeply on the memory of the Far East, was of a taciturn and even farouche disposition, and little inclined to suffer fools gladly. He spent the nine years of his life in China (A.D. 527-536) in the Shao Lin monastery, near Loyang, achieving little popularity, and earned the nick-name of the * Wall-gazing Brahman/ The essence of his doctrine asserts that the Buddha is not to be found in images and books, but in the heart of man. His followers, as the name of the school implies, lay great stress on medita- tion ; they avoid the slavish worship of images, the fetters of authority, and the evils of priestcraft. 1 The fundamental principle of Ch'an, or Zen Buddhism, may be summed up in the expression that the Universe is 1 It must not be supposed, however, that the wide diffusion of Ch'an ideas in China has done away with ritual worship, or even with super- stition. The creed of the Chinese layman, as in other countries, is ** often crude, irrational, and superstitious ; he is liable to mistake symbol for objective truth ; and he is apt to assume that faith is a sufficient guarantee of historic fact." R. F. Johnston, Buddhist China, p. 96. The Ch'an and Amidist parties, respectively philosophical or mystic, and devotional, are closely allied gorgeous shrines are often attached to Ch'an monasteries very much as Christian mysticism is associated with the iconolatry of the Roman church. The Chinese Buddhist leans to one side or the other according to his temperament and spiritual needs. Ch'an, or Zen Buddhism the scripture of Zen* or more philosophically, the identity of the Many and the One, of Samsara with the Brahman, This with That. Actual scripture is worthless in the letter, and only valuable for that to which it leads ; and to that goal there are other guides than the written page or spoken word. It is related, for example, of the sage Hiien Sha that he was one day prepared to deliver a sermon to an assembled congregation, and was on the point of beginning, when a bird was heard to sing very sweetly close by ; Hiien Sha descended from his pulpit with the remark that the sermon had been preached. Another sage, Teu Tse, one day pointed to a stone lying near the temple gate, and remarked, * Therein reside all the Buddhas of the past, the present, and the future.' The face of Nature was called * The Sermon of the Inanimate.' As we have already indicated, some of these concep- tions may be traced back to very early Buddhist origins, and it would be easy likewise to point to Western parallels. When the Zen teachers point to the rising and setting of the sun, to the deep sea, or to the falling flakes of snow in winter, and thereby inculcate the lessons of Zen, we are reminded of One who bids us consider the lilies, which toil not, neither do they spin, and who bids us not to be anxious for the morrow. When the mysterious visitors to the Chinese island of Puto, being asked to explain their religious beliefs, reply, " Our eyes have seen the ocean, our ears have heard the winds sighing, the rain descending, the sea waves dashing, and the wild 1 He, therefore, is the true Teacher 'who makes you perceive the Supreme Self wherever the mind attaches itself (Kabir) : for 'Whatever thing, of whatsoever kind it be, 'tis wisdom's part in each the real thing to see ' (Kurral, xxxvi, 5). All is in all. 2 55 Buddha ftf the Gospel of Buddhism birds calling/ 5 1 we are reminded of Blake, exclaiming, " When thou seest an eagle, thou seest a portion of genius. Lift up thy head ! " and " The pride of the peacock is the glory of God." The lines already quoted a complete poem in the Japanese original Granted this dewdrop world be but a dewdrop world, This granted, yet . . . are purely of the Zen tradition, though not perhaps its most profound expression. That most profound intuition is of die one Suchness that finds expression in the very transience of every passing moment : the same indivisible being is ever coming to expression, and never expressed, in the coming to be and passing away of man and of the whole world moment by moment; it is the very heart of c culture 5 and religion to recognize the eternal, not as obscured, but as revealed by the transient, to see infinity in the grain of sand, the same unborn in every birth, and the same undying in every death. These thoughts find constant expression in the poetry and art inspired by Zen thought. The Morning Glory, for example, fading in an hour, is a favourite theme of the Japanese poet and painter. What are we to understand by the poem of Matsunaga Teitoku ? The morning glory blooms but an hour^ and yet it differs not at heart From the giant pine that lives for a thousand years. Are we to think of the morning glory as a type and symbol of the tragic brevity of our life, as a memento mori, a re- minder of impermanence, like the wagtail's tail ? We may 1 R. F. Johnston, Buddhist China, p. 388. 256 Ch'an, or Zen Buddhism do this without error : but there lies beyond this a deeper meaning in the words of Matsunaga, something more than a lamentation for the very constitution of our experience. According to the commentary of Kinso : " He who has found the way in the morning may die at peace in the evening. To bloom in the morning, to await the heat of the sun, and then to perish, such is the lot appointed to the morning glory by Providence. There are pines, indeed, which have lived for a thousand years, but the morning glory* who must die so soon, never for a moment forgets herself, or shows herself to be envious of others. Every morning her flowers unfold, magically fair, they yield the natural virtue that has been granted to them, then they wither. And thus they perform their duty faithfully. Why condemn that faithfulness as vain and profitless ? "It is the same with the pine as with the morning glory, but as the life of the latter is the shorter, it illustrates the principle in a more striking way. The giant pine does not ponder on its thousand years, nor the morning glory on its life of a single day. Each does simply what it must. Certainly, the fate of the morning glory is other than that of the pine, yet their destiny is alike in this, that they fulfil the will of Providence, and are content. Mat- sunaga thought his heart was like their heart, and that is why he made that poem on the morning glory. 3 * * Closely consonant with Matsunaga's poem is Henry King's Contemplation upon Flowers. The student will, indeed, find that nearly every thought expressed in Budd- hist and Hindu literature finds expression in the Western world also ; and it could not be otherwise, for the value of these thoughts is universal, and therefore they could not 1 R. Petrucci, La PhilosopMe de la Nature dans VArt d*Extrme~ Orient. 257 Buddha ftp the Gospel of Buddhism be more Oriental than Western ; the East has advanced beyond the West only in their wider and fuller acceptance. Brave flowers that I could gallant it like you* And be as little vain ! You come abroad, and make a harmless show y And to your beds of earth again. You are not proud: you know your birth : For your embroider d garments are from earth. And with this contrasts the futile longing of man for an eternity of happiness : You do obey your months and times, but I Would have it ever Spring: My fate would know no Winter^ never die> Nor think of such a thing. O that I could my bed of earth but view And smile, and look as cheerfully as you ! And so it is that the Sermon of the Woods should teach us spontaneity of action, to fall in with the natural order of the world, neither apathetic nor rebellious, but possess- ing our souls in patience. 258 PART V : BUDDHIST ART 7. BUDDHIST LITERATURE Language and Writing WE may safely assume that Gautama's teaching was communicated to his disciples in Magadhi, the spoken dialect of his native country. The oldest contemporary documents of Buddhist literature, the Edicts of Asoka, are written in a later form of the sister dialect of Kosala. 1 The Hmayana Buddhist scrip- tures, the Theravada Canon or old Buddhist Bible, are preserved only in the literary dialect known as Pali; while the later Mahayana texts of the Mahayana are com- piled to us in Sanskrit, and preserved in that form, or in the early Chinese translations. Pali and Sanskrit in Buddhist circles play the part which was taken by Latin in the Christian Church of the Middle Ages. Pali is a literary form based on Magadhl, gradually developed, and perhaps only definitely fixed when the scriptures were first written down in Ceylon about 80 B.C. How can we speak of authentic scriptures which were not put into writing until four centuries after the death of the teacher whose words are recorded ? That is possible in India, though not in Europe. In the time of Gautama, a very long period of literary activity was already past, and the same activity still continued. Vedic literature, in particular, with the exception of the later Upanishads, was already ancient, while the work of the great compilers of epic poetry, and of the grammarians and lawmen, is only 1 The Edicts of Asoka, though veritable Buddhist literature, are not included in the scriptural canon, and are here referred to in a separate chapter, p. 180 seq. 259 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism a little later, and this literature has been faithfully trans- mitted to the present day. There existed also a great mass of contemporary popular poetry in the form of ballads and romances, tales and proverbs, part of which is preserved and embedded in Buddhist and Sanskrit literature, such as the Pali Jatakas and the Brahmanical epics. And yet it is unlikely that any written books existed much before the time of Asoka. Writing was first introduced to India about the eighth century B.C., probably by merchants trading with the cities of the Euphrates valley, but for a long time the idea of the written word was regarded in literary circles with much disfavour. One curious illustration of this appears in the fact that books are not included in the list of personal property allowed to be possessed by the Brethren. The Indians had long since elaborated a system of remembered literature, which, given the certainty of a regular succession of teachers and disciples, secured the transmission of texts as well, and perhaps better than the written page. Because of this mnemonic system, the lack of external means of record had not been felt. Study consisted, therefore in hearing, and in repeating to one- self, not in the reading of books. This tradition has survived in considerable vigour to the present day ; it is no uncommon thing to meet with Pandits who can repeat from memory a body of sacred literature of almost incred- ible extent, and it is still believed that " oral instruction is far superior to book-learning in maturing the mind and developing its powers." It hardly needs to be pointed out that many great thinkers, both ancient and modern, have shared this view. Plato suggests that the invention of letters "will produce forgetfulness in the minds of those who learn it, through neglect of memory, for that, 260 Language and Writing through trusting to writing, they will remember outwardly by means of foreign marks, and not inwardly by means of their own faculties ; " while Nietzsche exclaims that " He that writeth in blood and proverbs, doth not want to be read, but to be learnt by heart." In point of fact the principal literary form of the age of Gautama is that of the Sutra or Sutta> a ' string ' of logia, to be learnt by heart; and almost all early Indian literature, even the literature of law and grammar, is compiled in verse. Another reason for regarding writing with disfavour was that the written text becomes accessible to all, while the Brahmans at any rate wished to withhold the esoteric doctrine from those not qualified to understand or to make good use of it, and other matter from those who would perhaps encroach on their professional rights. The system of mnemonic education and pupillary succession was also so well organized that there was no fear that the well-trained * rememberer' would ever forget what he knew; the only recognized dangers were that certain texts might fall out of favour and so be finally lost, as has inevitably happened with a great part of early Indian literature, or that some accident might interfere with the pupillary or ' apostolic ' succession. Moreover, the means of making durable books had not yet been devised in the time of Gautama. On the other hand it is clear from the mode of publication of Asoka's edicts that a fairly general knowledge of writing, a literacy perhaps about the same as that of modern India, had been attained by the third century B.C. The Buddhist canon was first written down in Pali about 80 B.C., in the reign of King Vattagamani, in Ceylon. It is worth while to quote the words of the Sinhalese chronicle on this important event : 261 Buddha ftp the Gospel of Buddhism "The text of the Three Pitakas and the commentary thereon did the most wise Bhikkhus hand down in former times orally, but since they saw that the people were falling away (from the orthodox teaching), the bhikkhus met together, and in order that the true doctrines might endure, they wrote them down in .books." l These texts have been faithfully transmitted to modern times by successive copyists. On the other hand it is quite certain that a considerable part already existed in the same form in the time of Asoka, for some of the texts are referred to by name, and with quotation, in the Edicts. Without entering upon a long discussion, it will suffice to say that some parts of the texts almost as certainly go back to an earlier period, and record the sayings and doctrine of Gautama as remembered by his immediate disciples. The orthodox Hlnayanists, however, are not justified in asserting that the Pali canon was actually fixed, still less that it was written down, at the ' First Council ' imme- diately following the death of Gautama; the Buddhist Bible, like the Christian, consists of books composed at different ages, and many or most of the books are compila- tions of materials by many hands and of various periods. The Pali Canon The Pali canon consists of * Three Pitakas/ or * Baskets.' The Vinaya Pitaka is concerned with the rules of the Order of Brethren. It is subdivided as follows : Khandhaka JMahavagga (Cullavagga Parivara 1 Mahavamsci) ch. xxxiii. 262 Buddhist Library, Kandy, Ceylon. Sinhalese books are written on olas, strips of prepared palm leaf. A book consists of written leaves enclosed between two wooden covers which may be painted, lacquered, carved or plain, Some covers are made of ivory, silver, or less precious materials, A string of cotton or fibre is passed through the set of holes in the leaves and the corresponding holes in the covers ; this fibre is wound around the book when it is not in use and attached to a flat button (as shown in the illustration) . The button is made of ivory, horn or metal. The Pali Canon We need not repeat here what has been said elsewhere regarding the organization of the Order of bhikkhus. But it is of interest to note that the first chapter of the Mahavagga contains some of the oldest parts of the Buddha legend, relating in dignified archaic language how Gautama attained enlightenment, determined to preach the Law, and gained his first disciples. Here also the First Sermon of the Buddha, at Benares, and the well-known Fire Sermon are given, and the ordination of Rahula is also related. In the Cullavagga are found the stories of the merchant Anathapindika who dedicated a park to the Order ; of Devadatta, Gautama's cousin and enemy, the first schismatic; the establishment of the order of Sisters ; and a number of edifying anecdotes, all connected with the history or constitution of the Order. We have already quoted the First Sermon of Gautama, in which are set forth the essentials of the Dhamma, the Four Ariyan Truths and the Eightfold Path. Here we transcribe, with some abbreviation, the almost equally famous sermon in which the transient life of the individual, subject to grief and tormented by desires is likened to existence in the midst of a fire. "Then said the Exalted One to his disciples: * Every- thing, O disciples, is in flames. And what Everything, O disciples, is in flames? The eye, O disciples, is in flames, the visible is in flames, the knowledge of the visible is in flames, the contact with the visible is in flames, the feeling which arises from contact "with the visible is in flames, be it pleasure, be it pain, be it neither pleasure nor pain, this also is in flames. By what fire is it kindled ? By the fire of desire, by the fire of hate, by the fire of fascination, it is kindled; by birth, old age, death, pain, lamentation, sorrow, grief, despair, it is 263 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism kindled: thus I say. The ear is in flames, the audible is in flames, the knowledge of the audible is in flames, the contact with the audible is in flames, the feeling which arises from contact with the audible is in flames, be it pleasure, be it pain, be it neither pleasure nor pain, this also is in flames. By what fire is it kindled? By the fire of desire, by the fire of hate, by the fire of fascination, it is kindled; by birth, old age, death, pain, lamentation, sorrow, grief, despair, it is kindled; thus I say. The sense of smell is in flames 5 and then follows for the third time the same series of propositions; *the tongue is in flames ; the body is in flames ; the mind is in flames ' ; each time the same detail follows unabridged. Then the address goes on: " * Knowing this, O disciples, a wise, noble, hearer of the word becomes wearied of the eye, he becomes wearied of the visible, he becomes wearied of the knowledge of the visible, he becomes wearied of contact with the visible, he becomes wearied of the feeling which arises from contact with the visible, be it pleasure, be it pain, be it neither pleasure nor pain. He becomes wearied of the ear* and then follows one after the other the whole series of ideas as above. The address concludes : " * While he becomes wearied thereof, he becomes free from desire ; free from desire, he becomes delivered ; in the delivered arises the knowledge: I am delivered; rebirth is at an end, perfected is holiness, duty done; there is no more returning to this world ; he knows this." * It should be noted that this address is delivered by Gautama to an assembly of Brethren already initiated and ordained, already familiar with the thought of origin- ation and decease. A somewhat different method is 1 Condensed from Oldenberg* Another version above, p. 42. 264 The Pali Canon employed in addresses to uninitiated laymen, such as the 80,000 village elders sent by King Bimbisara to the Buddha for instruction. There is in a much more popular style milk for babes. When in another place the Buddha is accused of favouritism, inasmuch as he teaches the more profound doctrine to his disciples and more simple matters to the public, he draws an analogy from the operations of a farmer, who devotes the most care to his most productive fields (the Brethren), somewhat less attention to the less fertile fields (the Buddhist laity), and less still to the barren soil (those who do not accept the Good Law). While Discipline is dealt with in the Vinaya Pitaka, the Sutta Pitaka, the * Basket of Suttas * is our chief source for the Buddha's Gospel as expounded in argument and dialogues. Here also are included the " Psalms of the Brethren and Sisters," the most important literary pro- duction of early Buddhism, and the Jatakas, which embody the largest and oldest collection of folklore extant. The Sutta Pitaka is divided as follows : 1. Digha Nikaya\ 2. Majjkima, Nikaya\ 3. Samyutta Nikaya\ 4. Anguttara Nikdya\ and 5. Khuddaka Nikaya. The last, again, includes, i. Kkuddakapatha\ 2. Dhammapada\ 3. Udana\ 4. Itivuttaka\ 5. Sutta- nipata\ 6. Vimanavatthu\ 7. Petavatthu\ 8. Them- gatha ; 9. Therlgatha ; i o. Jataka ; 1 1 . Niddesa ; 12. Patisambkiddmagga ; 13. Apadana\ 14. Buddhavamsa\ and 15. Cariyapitaka. The first of the Dlgha Nikaya Suttas is called the Perfect Net. In this net are supposed to be caught and exposed each and all of sixty-two different philosophies which proceed from the ancient animistic conception of soul as a subtle, permanent entity within the body, and 265 Buddha ^f the Gospel of Buddhism independent of the life of the body. These various eel-wrigglers, as Gautama calls them, he says are all of them trapped in the net of the sixty-two modes : "this way and that they plunge about, but they are in it; this way and that they may flounder, but they are included in it, caught in it. Just, brethren, as when a skilful fisherman or fisher-lad should drag a tiny pool of water with a fine-meshed net he might fairly think : * Whatever fish of size may be in this pond, every one will be in this net; flounder about as they may, they will be included in it, and caught J ; just so is it with these speculators about the past and future, in this net, flounder as they may, they are included and caught." It is unfortunate that in all these cases we hear only one side of the argument, which always appears to leave no way of escape for the 'skilled absolutist. 3 If ever Gautama met his match we should like to hear what passed on such an occasion. Of more enduring interest is the Sutta upon the Fruits of the Life of a, Wanderer. Here, moreover, we do not get a purely Buddhist, but rather an Indian point of view. The whole Sutta constitutes a reply to the question, what advantage is the life of a recluse? King Ajata- sattu of Magadha points out the gain that men derive from their worldly occupations, and wishes to know what corre- sponding fruit, visible here and now, the members of a religious Order obtain. Gautama replies that the fruit of the life of the member of an Order may be seen in : i. The honour and respect shown to such men by others in the world; even the king, for example, would show respect to a man who had formerly been a slave or a servant, if he adopted the homeless life. 2. The train- ing in mere morality, as kindness, honesty, chastity, etc. 266 The Pali Canon 3. Confidence, freedom from fear, etc., born of conscious rectitude. 4 and 5. Recollectedness and self-possession. 6, Contentment with little. 7. Emancipation from the Five Hindrances : Covetousness, ill-temper, laziness, anxiety and perplexity. 8. The consequent joy and peace. 9. Practice of the Four Jhanas. 10. Insight arising from knowledge, n. The power of projecting mental images. 12. Five modes of mediumship and clairvoyance (thought-reading, audition, etc.) j 1 and finally 13 (which alone is distinctively Buddhist), realization of the Four Truths, destruction of the Flood of Passion, attainment of Arahatta. The argument concludes : " Thus with the pure Heavenly Eye, surpassing that of men, he sees beings as they pass away from one state of existence, and take form in another ; he recognizes the mean and the noble, the well-favoured and the ill-favoured, the happy and the wretched, passing away according to their deeds." 2 And the recluse perceives the Four Ariyan Truths, " and he knows Rebirth has been destroyed. The higher 1 These are practices generally, but by no means always, condemned in early Buddhist scriptures. 2 I quote this passage on the Heavenly Eye (Dibba-cakkhu) omniscient vision of all that comes to pass in the Kamaloka and Rupaloka because the same idea in a less mythical form frequently recurs in Indian writings, with reference to the intuition of men of genius generally; it can be paralleled elsewhere, eg. Chuang Tzu: "The mind of the sage being in repose becomes the mirror of the Universe, the speculum of all creation.," and William Morris : " It seems to me that no hour of the day passes that the whole world does not show itself to me." Buddhists also recognize the Dhamma-cakkhu (Eye for the Truth) and Panna-cakkhu (Eye of Wisdom). In Hindu mythology these three modes of c vision ' are symbolized by the third eye which opens on the brow of Siva. 267 Buddha ^f the Gospel of Buddhism life has been fulfilled. What had to be done has been accom- plished. After this present life there will be no beyond ! " Just, O king, as if in a mountain fastness there were a pool of water, clear, translucent, and serene ; and a man, standing on the bank, and with eyes to see, should perceive the shellfish, the gravel and the pebbles and the shoals of fish, as they move about or lie within it : he would know : * This pool is clear, transparent and serene, and there within it are the shellfish, and the sand and gravel, and that the shoals of fish are moving about or lying still.' "This, O king, is an immediate fruit of the life of a recluse, visible in this world, and higher and sweeter than the last. And there is no fruit of the life of a recluse, visible in this world, that is higher and sweeter than this/ 1 The Tevijja Sufta, one of the very few which emphasize the advantage of rebirth in the Brahma heavens, while leaving out of account the fundamental idea of Ara- hatta, contains the usual and beautiful description of the Four Sublime Moods which, if they are not the end of Buddhist culture, are at any rate its initiation : " And he lets his mind pervade one quarter of the world with thoughts of Love, and so the second, and so the third, and so the fourth. And thus the whole world, above, below, around, and everywhere, does he continue to pervade with heart of Love, far-reaching, grown great, and beyond measure. "Just, Vasetths, as a mighty trumpeter makes himself heard and that without difficulty in all the four directions ; even so of all things that have shape or life, there is not one that he passes by or leaves aside, but regards them all with mind set free, and deep-felt love. 1 1 By that freedom of mind that is Love, developed thus, whatever finite thing there be, naught is left out, naught remains apart from it. 268 The Pali Canon " Verily this, Vasettha, is the way to a state of union with Brahma." Exactly the same formula is repeated in the case of the three other moods, Compassion, Sympathy, and Even- Mindedness. The Sigalovada Sutta consists of a discourse in which the Buddha lays down for a young layman the duties of those who live in the world, in general accord with the injunctions of Brahmanical scriptures. A Sutta of greater importance is the Mahaparinibbana> the Great Sutta of the Full Release, in which the last days and last words of the Teacher are recorded. Some parts of this date back almost certainly to the memory of the Buddha's immediate disciples. Undoubtedly old, for example, is the famous saying : "Therefore, O Ananda, be ye lamps unto yourselves. Be ye your own refuge. Hold fast to the Norm as your Light, fast to the Norm as_your Refuge/' x So too the description of Ananda's overwhelming grief, leaning against a door-post and weeping, until the Master sends for and speaks to him words of consolation. Many of the verses scattered through the prose, and marking moments of heightened emotion, must be ancient. In all these more ancient passages the Buddha speaks entirely as a man to man ; but elsewhere in the same work super- natural powers and portents are freely introduced. A number of quotations from this Sutta have already been given in earlier chapters. The Payasi Sutta maintains an argument in favour of the existence of a soul quite contrary to the real genius of early Buddhist thought. It is true the upholder of the Buddhist position is the venerable Kumara Kassapa, and not Gautama himself ; still it is taken to be the Buddhist 1 "Therefore, Ananda, abide as those having the Self for island, Self for refuge, as those having Norm for island, the Norm for refuge, and none other." [The Commentaries translate dtpa as island.] 260 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism position, and it is very curious to see the sceptical Payasi inquiring: "But who lets Master Kassapa know all these things: that there are Three-and-Thirty Gods, or that the Three-and-Thirty Gods live so many years ? We do not believe him when he says these things." This is evidence that some of the early Buddhists, at least, took very seriously their pantheon of minor divinities. The Majjhima Nikaya contains a number 152 of sermons and dialogues which are shorter than those of the Digha Nikaya. The Samyutta Nikaya contains fifty-six groups of Suttas dealing with connected subjects or persons. The Mara- samyutta, and the Bhikkhunisamyutta for example, num- bers four and five in the series, contain a group of legends in which Mara the Tempter appears to the Buddha, to his disciples, or to one or other of the Sisters, and endeavours to shake their faith. These Suttas are cast in the old form of conte fable, an alternation of prose and verse, the Indian name of which is akkyana. Amongst these ballads are some of the most beautiful of old Indian poems; we recognize in them also many of the elements of a primitive drama, the material from which drama may have developed, but we cannot speak of them as early Buddhist dramas in them- selves, for they are neither sufficiently elaborated, nor was any such worldly activity as the drama tolerated in the rule of the Brethren. Only at a considerably later date (Asvaghosha) do we find Buddhist poets creating admit- tedly dramatic works. Of the spiritual ballads now under consideration, the following of Gotami the Slender the story of whose conversion has already been given (p. 148 f .) will serve as a good example : "Thus have I heard. The Master was once staying at 270 The Pali Canon Savatthi, in the Jeta Grove, the park of Anathapindika. Sister Kisa Gotami dressed herself early, and taking the alms-bowl beneath her robe, went to Savatthi to beg her food. And when she had gone about Savatthi and returned with what she had collected, and had duly eaten, she entered the Dark Wood, and sat her down at the foot of a tree thinking to pass the day there. " Then the evil Mara, desiring to arouse fear, wavering, and dread in her, desiring to make her to desist from her concentred thought, went up to her. And he addressed Kisa Gotami in the verse that follows: * How comes it thou dost sit with tear-stained face Like to some mother that has lost her child? Here dwelling all alone within the forest depths Is it, perhaps, a man thou lookest for?* " Then Gotami the Slender reflected : Who is this, whether human or not-human, who has spoken such a verse? And it came into her mind: It is the evil Mara, who seeks to arouse in me fear, wavering, and dread, and would make me to desist from my concentred thought ; he has spoken the verse. And when the Sister Kisa Gotami knew that it was Mara, she replied to him in the verse that follows: Tis sooth indeed that I am she whose child is lost for ever: * While as for men^ they are not hard to find! I do not weep nor wail, nor have I any fear of thee, my friend: Love of the world is utterly destroyed^ the gloom is rent in twain^ And I have overcome the hosts of Death And here I dwell, from all the Deadly Floods emancipate? 1 The words ( for ever ' convey the thought that while Gotarni had lost her child, yet, being an Arahat, never again would she suffer the like loss. 271 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism u Then Mara vanished thence, sorry and dejected, think- ing : Sister Gotami knoweth me." The Anguttara Nikaya is a very extensive work, contain- ing at least 2308 Suttas. These are classified in sections, numbered one to eleven, the Suttas in each section dealing with such things of which there are as many as the num- ber of the Sutta itself. Thus in the Second Section the Suttas speak of the two things which a man should avoid, the two kinds of Buddhas, the two virtues of the forest-life ; in the Third Section the Suttas speak of the trinity of Thought, Word, and Deed, and the three sorts of monks ; in the Fourth Section, the four things which lead to a cessation of Becoming, the four that lead to Purga- tory, the four that lead to Paradise, and so forth ; in the Eighth Section, the eight ways in which man and woman mutually hinder each other, and the eight causes of an earthquake; in the Tenth Section, the ten powers of a Buddha. Needless to point out, the arrangement is formal and pedantic, and the general tone is also somewhat dry. One of the best passages, however, is that which speaks of the Three Messengers 1 of the Gods Old Age, Illness, and Death of whom King Yama asks the misdoers who fall into Purgatory, thus : " * O man, did you not see the first of Death's messengers visibly appear among men?' " He replies : * Lord, I did not. 5 "Then, O Brethren, King Yama says to him: *O man, did you not see among men a woman or a man, eighty or ninety or hundred years of age, decrepit, crooked as the curved rafter of a gable roof, bowed down, leaning on a staff, trembling as he walked, miserable, with youth long 1 In the Majjhima Nikaya (Sutta No. 130), five Messengers are spoken of: the three as above, adding a new-born baby and robber undergoing punishment. 272 The Pali Canon fled, broken-toothed, grey-haired and nearly bald, totter- ing, with wrinkled brow, and blotched with freckles? 5 " He replied, < Lord, I did/ " Then, O Brethren, King Yama says to him : * O man, did it not occur to you, being a person of mature intelligence and years : " I am also subject to old age, and in no way exempt. Come now, I will act nobly, in deed, word, and thought ?'" " He replies : * Lord, I could not. Lord, I did not think/ "Then, O Brethren, King Yama says to him: 'O man, through thoughtlessness you failed to act nobly in deed, word, and thought. Verily it shall be done unto you, O man, in accordance with your thoughtlessness. ... It was you yourself who did this wickedness, and you alone shall feel its consequences 1 " From the literary point of view we may remark three characteristics of the Suttas so far considered. First of all, the repetitions, of which an example will be found in the Fire Sermon quoted above. It is almost impossible to put such texts before a modern reader without con- densation, and without the use of the conjunction 'and,' and without pronouns, as they are in the original, to say nothing of the tedious reiteration of every phrase and every shade of thought. " The periods of these addresses," says Professor Olden- berg, " in their motionless and rigid uniformity, on which no lights and shadows fall, are an accurate picture of the world as it represented itself to the eye of that monastic fraternity, the grim world of origination and decease, which goes on like clockwork in an ever uniform course, and behind which rests the still deep of the Nirvana. In the words of this ministry, there is heard no sound of working within ... no impassional entreating of men to come to the faith, no bitterness for the unbelieving who 273 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism remain afar off. In these addresses, one word, one sentence, lies beside another in stony stillness, whether it expresses the most trivial thing or the most important. As worlds of gods and men are, for the Buddhist con- sciousness, ruled by everlasting necessity, so also are the worlds of ideas and of verities : for these, too, there is one, and only one, necessary form of knowledge and expression, and the thinker does not make this form but he adopts what is ready to hand , . . and thus those endless repetitions accumulate which Buddha's disciples were never tired of listening to anew, and always honour- ing afresh as the necessary garb of holy thought." l The Buddhist authors were perhaps so much impressed by and so pleased with the excellent doctrine, that they did not feel the repetitions wearisome, they could not hear too often the hard-won truths that had set them free. We have a glimpse of this point of view in one of Asoka's Edicts, where the Emperor says : " Certain phrases have been uttered again and again by reason of the honeyed sweetness of such and such a topic, in the hope that the people may act up to them." The early Buddhists had no wish to make their scriptures interesting, and it is very true that they 'have but one taste/ At the same time it is most likely that this extremely serious and indeed heavy style, made eloquent only by its very seriousness it is not to be denied 1 This passage quoted from Oldenberg, need not be taken uncritically. For example, we need not accept that this " grim world . . . goes on like clockwork," as this overlooks that within his own kamma a man has free-will. Why otherwise the constant exhortations to put forth every energy to become skilled in the Way? Furthermore, Early Buddhism entertained "no bitterness for the unbelieving/ 5 lack of faith in its teaching was not regarded either as an offense, or as dooming the unbeliever to hell, but simply indicated that the individual was not yet sufficiently evolved in certain respects to respond to the teaching. 274 Head of a Buddha. (Further India, Lopburi, Thailand. Twelfth-thirteenth century. Grey sandstone. .215 m. high. Boston Museum of Fine Arts.) The hair is arranged in small knots simulating curls, with the usual ushmsha, and surmounted by a conical projection; the ushnisha is one of the physical characteristics of the Buddha. The many short curls correspond to the tonsure of the Bodhisattva. The Prince cut off his hair and "Jewel-crested turban" with one stroke of his sword, thus becoming a monastic. In some instances the pro- tuberance on his cranium becomes a flame symbolizing the source and seat of The Pali Canon that the method of line upon line has a certain cumulative impressiveness, a kind of noble austerity and patience, a * sublime monotony* really reflects the manner of speech of the Buddha himself. For Gautama is not like Jesus a poet and a mystic, but a psychologist : * he does not speak to uneducated fishermen, but to practised meta- physicians, and in an atmosphere of controversy: he makes no personal appeal, he speaks with well-considered purpose rather than enthusiasm or fervour, and he is concerned to leave no loophole for possible or deliberate misunderstandings. He feels, indeed, some apprehension lest in future the most profound sermons should be neglected in favour of more artistic and attractive com- positions : "Some there are," he says, "who hearken willingly to the words of followers of mine who are poets, poetasters, litterateurs, or mystics . . . and who allow the sermons of the Tathagata, of profound import, transcendent, and devoted to the doctrine of the Void, to be forgotten." We may thus believe that the more poetical and literary books were only little by little and with some difficulty admitted to the canon; and this is probably the explana- tion of the fact that they are for the most part gathered together in one Nikaya, the Khuddaka^ which was most likely included in the authoritative scripture at a com- paratively late date, though of course it contains abund- ance of ancient matter side by side with the younger. The second characteristic which we remark in the Suttas so far discussed is the dialectic method of the Buddha's argument. The manner of his speech is always courteous and friendly: * 4 The method followed is always the same. Gautama puts 1 If Gautama was indeed a mystic, as the Mahayanists claim, it is then Buddhaghosha and other of the Pali authors whom we must regard as chiefly responsible for ' Pali Buddhism.' ^ ^ / Buddha ftf the Gospel of Buddhism himself as far as possible in the mental position of the questioner. He attacks none of his cherished convictions. He accepts as the starting-point of his own exposition the desirability of the act or condition prized by his opponent. ... He even adopts the very phraseology of the ques- tioner. And then, partly by putting a new and (from the Buddhist point of view) a higher meaning into the words ; partly by an appeal to such ethical conceptions as are common ground between them; he gradually leads his opponent up to his conclusion. This is, of course, always Arahatship." * This is the method of the Socratic dialogue; and we may also take it that in the Dialogues extant we have at least as much of the actual teaching of Gautama preserved, as Plato gives of the teaching of Socrates. The method, however, presupposes an acquaintance with the point of view of the Buddha's opponents, since, as Professor Rhys Davids justly remarks, the argumentum ad hominem can never be quite the same as a general statement made without reference to the opposite view. There is also the disadvantage that the argument is made to lead to a fore- gone conclusion, and though the logical sequence may be indisputable, the twisting of words in a new sense some- times ' corners ' the opponent without meeting his real position. We do not really hear both sides of the case. As Professor Oldenberg truly comments: "Those who converse with Buddha are good for nothing else but simply to say /Yes/ and to be eventually converted, if they have not yet been converted." Subject to this limitation, and apart from the wearisome repetitions, we can nevertheless recognize that the Dialogues are skil- fully constructed and couched in language of restraint and dignity. 1 Rhys Davids, Dialogues of the Buddha^ i, p. 206. 2 7 6 The Pali Canon A third special characteristic of the Suttas is the constant use of simile and parable. A simile, indeed, is not an argument; but it often serves better to convince the listener than any sequence of close reasoning* Many of the similes are well-found, and additional to their value for edification, they throw a strong light on the every- day life of ancient India, very welcome to the historian of manners. Those which refer to the crafts are of special interest : we read, for example : "Just, O king, as a clever potter or his apprentice could make, could succeed in getting out of properly prepared clay any shape of vessel he wanted to have, or an ivory carver out of ivory, or a goldsmith out of gold : such, O king, is the Skill which is an immediate fruit of the life of a recluse." Samanna-phala Sutta. And with reference to the practice of breathing exercises, and mindfulness: " Even as a skilful turner, or turner's apprentice, drawing his string at length, or drawing it out short, is conscious that he is doing one or the other, so let a Brother practise inhaling and exhaling." Maha Satipatthana Sutta. A favourite simile is that of the oil-lamp : " Just, O Brethren, as an oil-lamp burns oil and wick, and a man from time to time adds more oil and renews the wick, this oil-lamp thus fed with fuel burns for a much longer time so, Brethren, waxes Craving in the man who finds his pleasure in things of the world, that in sooth are nought but bonds. " Samyutta Nikaya* Another favourite simile is that of the lotus, for " * Just as the lotus born of watery mud, grows in the water, rises above the water, and is not defiled by it : so have I arisen in the world, and passed beyond the world, and am not defiled by the world,' says Gautama." Samyutta Nikaya. 277 Buddha & the Gospel of Buddhism The lotus has thus become a symbol of purity ; and in iconography, when an apparitional character had been given to the figure of the Buddha, and in the case of other superhuman beings, the lotus pedestal or seat is a mark of other-worldly and divine origin or nature. Need- less to say the lotus, in literature, is the source of many other similes and metaphors, for the most part not specifically Buddhist. In general also, the lotus stands for anything that is excellent and well-liked : "The boy Vipassi, Brethren, became the darling and beloved of the people, even as a blue or rose or white lotus is dear to and beloved of all, so that he was literally carried about from lap to lap." Mahapadana Sutta. In another place the true spiritual life is compared to a lute, of which the strings must be neither too loosely nor too tightly stretched ; by this is indicated the internal balance and harmony of the ideal character. The teaching of salvation, again, is compared to the healing work of the physician, who removes from a wound the poisoned arrow, and applies the curing herbs. Sometimes the similes are humorous, as when it is pointed out that if a man should milk a cow by the horns, he would get no milk; or if one should fill a vessel with sand and water, and chu